Hematophagous Research Articles

Prevalence of clinical malaria and associated symptoms in pregnant women at Hamusit health center, Northwest Ethiopia

BackgroundMalaria is the disease caused by intracellular parasites known as Plasmodium species and is mainly transmitted by blood sucking female Anopheles mosquitoes. During pregnancy, malaria results in severe complications to the mother, the fetus and the newborn. Symptoms of malaria, such as fever, malaise, headache, nausea and vomiting, in pregnant women can be mistakenly attributed solely to pregnancy. In Ethiopia, the prevalence of malaria in asymptomatic pregnant women has been well documented. However, studies indicating the prevalence and clinical presentation of malaria in pregnant women are lacking. Therefore, there is little information on the prevalence of malaria and significantly associated signs and symptoms in pregnant women. The aim of this cross-sectional study was to determine the prevalence of malaria and identify clinical signs and symptoms associated with malaria which suggest presence of malaria in pregnant women at Hamusit Health Center, Northwest Ethiopia. MethodsA health facility-based cross-sectional study was conducted on 231 malaria symptomatic pregnant women from April to June 2023. A convenience sampling technique was employed. The socio demographic and clinical data of the study participants was collected through face-to-face interview using questionnaire. Thick and thin blood films were prepared from capillary blood and stained with 10 % Giemsa. The stained blood smear was washed with clean water, air dried and examined under a light microscope. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences software version 20 (SPSS 20) was used to analyses data. Logistic regression was used to assess signs and symptoms associated with malaria. An adjusted odds ratio with a 95 % confidence interval was calculated, and a P value < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. ResultsThe overall prevalence of malaria among symptomatic pregnant women in the study area was 22.9 % (53/231) (95 % CI: 17.3–29 %). The most prevalent species was P. falciparum, with a frequency of 14.3 % (33/231) (95 % CI: 10 %–18.6 %), followed by P. vivax, 5.2 % (12/231) (95 % CI: (2.6 %–8.2 %). The remaining 3.5 % (8/231) (95 % CI: 1.8 %–6.7 %) were mixed infections of P. falciparum & P. vivax. Primigravidae (62.3 %) and first trimester pregnancies (52.8 %) were more affected. Malaria signs and symptoms mainly, fever [(P = 0.002, AOR (95%CI); 5.1(1.84, 14.30)], joint pain [(P = 0.001, AOR (95%CI); 7.8(2.24, 27.32)], vomiting [(P = 0.007, AOR (95%CI); 2.9(1.34, 6.43)], malaise [(P = 0.005, AOR (95%CI); 3.6(1.48, 8.67)] and fatigue [(P = 0.0039, AOR (95%CI); 2.1(1.04, 4.37)], were significantly associated with malaria infection in pregnant women. ConclusionsMalaria positivity in pregnant women with fever, joint pain, vomiting, malaise and fatigue is considerably high in the study area. These signs and symptoms in pregnant women are strong indicators of malaria infection.

Prevalence and Associated Risk Factors of Haemonchus contortus in Sheep Slaughtered at Bahir Dar Municipal Abattoir, Ethiopia.

Haemonchus contortus is a blood sucking parasite resulting a massive economic loss in tropical and subtropical sheep rearing areas. A cross-sectional study was conducted to estimate the prevalence of haemonchosis and its predictors at Bahir Dar municipal abattoir, northwestern Ethiopia, from December 2022 to April 2023. A total of 378 abomasum of sheep were taken by using systematic random sampling and inspected according to standard procedures. Accordingly, the findings of this study revealed an overall prevalence of 34.40% (30/378) (95% CI: 29.75-39.35). The presence of H. contortus in female sheep (46.41%) was significantly higher than in male (23.35%) (P < 0.001). The same is true; prevalence of haemonchosis in young (<1 year) sheep was 43.33% significantly (P < 0.001) higher than that of adult (≥1 year) which was 26.26%. Based the origin of the animals in the current study, it was nonsignificant variation (P = 0.386). The current study depicted that H. contortus infection is a common parasitic disease and requires remarkable attention to the prevention and control of haemonchosis at the study area.

114 The efficacy of a natural fungus (Duddingtonia flagrans) in reducing gastrointestinal nematode indicators in lambs

Abstract Sustainable and profitable small ruminant production in the US is affected by infections with gastrointestinal nematodes (GIN), especially the blood sucking GIN, Haemonchus contortus. The overuse and misuse of available drug classes has led to multi-drug resistant GIN that pose significant challenges to parasite control on many farms. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of a natural fungus (Duddingtonia flagrans; Bioworma, International Animal Health) in reducing GIN larval counts and other GIN indicators in hair sheep wethers. Eighteen St. Croix (n = 9) and Barbados Blackbelly (n = 9) wethers (227 ± 1.4 days of age and 29.7 ± 0.6 kg BW) were dewormed (d 0) with a combination of levamisol (Prohibit; 8 mg/kg BW) moxidectin (Cydectin; 0.2 mg/kg BW) and albendazole (Valbazen; 7.5 mg/kg BW) prior to the start of feeding according to the manufacturer’s recommendations for feeding BioWorma. At this time, lambs were separated into two treatment groups (n = 9/group), split into 3 replications per treatment group and placed on six pasture paddocks (0.06 ha; n = 3 per paddock) after accounting for breed, initial fecal egg count (FEC) and BW. Lambs were then fed daily either a grain supplement ration (corn and soybean meal) with Livamol with Bioworma (LIV) or without (CON) at 2% of their BW for 98 d. LIV was added to the ration based on total lamb BW/paddock. To evaluate the effect of LIV treatment, BW and body condition scores (BCS) were recorded every 2 wk for 98 d. Blood and fecal samples were also collected for determination of packed cell volume (PCV) and FEC. Pooled treatment group feces (d 0 – 98) were collected and cultured to determine GIN genera. A subset of animals/treatment (n = 3) will be harvested to determine abomasal worm counts. Data were analyzed using repeated measures in a mixed model, and FEC were log transformed before analysis. Following deworming (d 0), FEC were reduced by 100% by d 14. There was a mixed population of GIN at the start of the study (averaging 54%, 42%, 1.2% and 1.8% for H. contortus, Tricostrongylus spp., Oesphagostomum spp. and Nematodirus spp., respectively). LIV with Bioworma supplementation had no impact on BW, BCS, PCV or FEC in this study averaging 34.2 ± 0.3 kg, 2.5 ± 0.04, 34.7 ± 0.5% and 150.9 eggs per gram, respectively. Under the conditions of this study, Bioworma® supplementation had no influence on GIN indicators measured up to 100 d of grazing. This research will be continued during subsequent grazing seasons to determine the effect of continued supplementation on lamb parasite load and performance as well as pasture infestation levels.

Potential roles of Culicoides spp. (Culicoides imicola, Culicoides oxystoma) as biological vectors of bluetongue virus in Yuanyang of Yunnan, P. R. China.

Culicoides plays a crucial role as an insect vector in the field of veterinary medicine. The transmission of significant viruses such as bluetongue virus (BTV) and African horse sickness virus (AHSV) by this insect poses a substantial threat, leading to the development of severe diseases in domestic animals. This study aimed to explore the Culicoides species, identify their blood-meal sources, and assess the presence of BTV and AHSV carried by Culicoides in Yuanyang County, Yunnan Province. The aim was to gain insights into the potential vectors of these two viruses and elucidate their potential roles in the transmission of pathogens. The midges were collected from cattle (Bos indicus), pig (Sus scrofa), and goat (Capra hircus) pens in Yuanyang County, Yunnan Province in June 2020. Initial identification of midges was conducted through morphological characteristics, followed by molecular identification using the cytochrome C oxidase subunit I (COI) gene. The determination of Culicoides blood-meal sources was accomplished using specific primers targeting the cytochrome b (Cyt b) gene from potential hosts. BTV and AHSV RNA were identified in Culicoides pools through the application of reverse transcriptase PCR and quantitative real-time PCR. Nucleotide homology and phylogenetic analysis were performed using MegAlign (DNAStar) and Mega 6.0 software. A total of 6,300 Culicoides, consisting of C. oxystoma, C. arakawai, C. imicola, and C. innoxius, were collected from cattle, pigs, and goat pens. The engorgement rates for these species were 30.2%, 54.6%, 75%, and 66.7%, respectively. In the cattle pen, the prevailing species is C. oxystoma (100%). In the pig pen, C. arakawai dominates (70%), with C. oxystoma following at 30%. In the goat pen, C. imicola holds the majority (45.45%), trailed by C. oxystoma (25%), C. innoxius (20.45%), and C. arakawai (9.09%). These Culicoides species were identified as feeding on cattle, pigs, goats, chickens (Gallus gallus), and humans (Homo sapiens). The positivity rates for BTV were 20.00% and 11.54% in blood-fed specimens of C. imicola and C. oxystoma, respectively. Conversely, the positivity rates for BTV in non-blood-fed specimens were 0.00% and 6.67% for C. imicola and C. oxystoma, respectively. BTV was not detected in C. arakawai and C. innoxius. The specimens (YY86) from C. imicola that tested positive for BTV had the closest genetic relationship to YTS-4 isolated from Mangshi, Yunnan Province in 1996. All test results for the nucleic acid of AHSV were negative. The study reveals variations in the species distribution, community composition, blood sucking rate, and blood-feeding sources of Culicoides across different habitats. Notably, C. imicola and C. oxystoma emerge as potential vectors for the transmission of BTV in local animals. Accordingly, this investigation provides crucial insights that can serve as a valuable reference for the prevention and control of BTV in local animals, particularly from the perspective of vector management.

Fusarium oxysporum; its enhanced entomopathogenic activity with acidic silver nanoparticles against Rhipicephalus microplus ticks.

Fusarium oxysporum is an entomopathogenic fungus, and it has anti-biological activity against arthropods. Ticks are blood sucking arthropods which are responsible for transmitting different diseases in humans and animals. The use of chemical insecticides against ticks is not eco-friendly option and results in the development of acaricide resistance. Previously, we had cultured a local isolate of Fusarium oxysporum from soil samples which were identified through microscopy and confirmed through molecular technique. In our previous experiments, we have prepared Silver nanoparticles (AgNP) at pH 7 and they had been characterized through X-Ray Diffraction (XRD), UV-visible and zeta-potential. In our current study, the AgNP were prepared at different pH conditions and characterized through Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM). The protein molecules of F. oxysporum were charged with Ag ions. F. oxysporum NP were observed to enhance anti-biological activity by killing Rhipicephalus microplus and they caused 100% mortality at pH 4 and pH 5 in 24 h in anti-tick biological assay. Our study is the first report to do biological assay against Rhipicehalus ticks by using Fusarium AgNP at acidic pH. Biological control using entomopathogenic fungi can be the best alternative of the chemical method to control the tick population.

Efficacy of D-Limonene Nanoemulsion Against Rhipicephalus annulatus and Rhipicephalus sanguineus Ticks.

Ticks infestation has a negative impact against human and animal health through blood sucking, transmission of blood-borne diseases and also caused economic losses. In the present study the adulticidal, ovicidal and larvicidal activity of D-limonene nanoemulsion (DLN) were evaluated against two tick species; Rhipicephalus annulatus and Rhipicephalus sanguineus. Nanoemulsion form of D-limonene was prepared, and its characteristics were evaluated using a UV spectrophotometer and zeta droplet size measurement. Acetylcholinesterase activity was determined. The results revealed significant adulticidal effect with low LC50 and LC90 for D-limonene pure form (DL) against both adult tick spp. (R. annulatus and R. sanguineus) ((0.958 and 1.559%) and (2.26 and 3.51%), respectively). DLN LC50 and LC90 values were ((1.277 and 2.396) and (3.97 and 7.28), respectively) against R. annulatus and R. sanguineus, respectively. DL and DLN showed significant ovicidal effect against R. sanguineus at high concentrations (10 and 5%). In larval packet test, LC50 and LC90 values of DL were ((1.53 and 2.22%) and (6.81 and 12.07%), respectively) against R. annulatus and R. sanguineus, respectively, while LC50 and LC90 values of DLN were ((6.48 and 11.26%) and (7.82 and 13.59%), respectively) against R. annulatus and R. sanguineus, respectively. Significant acetylcholinesterase inhibition percentage was detected for both ticks spp. which treated by DL and DLN. Pure DL is more effective than DLN form against R. annulatus and R. sanguineus.

Acaricidal effect of crude aqueous extract of Nicotiana tabacum along with turmeric and Annona leaf extract on cattle ticks

The ectoparasites produces severe economic and production loss in farm animal’s through tick bites, sucking of blood, tick worry, tick toxicosis, tick paralysis and transmission of haemoprotozoan diseases. Ticks developed resistance against chemical acaricides and also the residues of chemical acaricide producing environmental pollution. The herbal based acaricide used as biocontrol agent for protecting environment particularly hilly area. As per indigenous technical knowledge records, the Nicotiana tabacum was a traditional control remedy for control of ectoparasites in India. In vitro acaricidal efficacy of crude aqueous leaf extract of Nicotiana tabacum along with neem and turmeric followed by Annona leaves on immature and adult stages of Rhipicephalus sp. was carried out at different concentrations of with different time interval. These extract combo had a significant effect on the mortality of nymphal and adult stages of ticks. The 70%, 80% and 90% mortality of Nymphal and adult stages of ticks at 24-36 hours post treatment with 40%, 50% 70% concentration of herbal extract in invitro assay. The mortality rates of ticks increased with the increasing the extract concentrations both in vivo and in vitro. Nicotiana tabacum causes paralysis of ticks and leads to detachment from the body of animal and concluded that Nicotiana tabacum along with turmeric and annona extract is effective biocontrol agent for controlling ectoparasites without any environmental pollution and harmful side effect in animal health.

Bleeding skin lesions in gestating sows of a piglet producing farm in Austria

BackgroundStomoxys calcitrans, the stable fly, occurs in pig producing countries worldwide. While in cattle the impact of this blood sucking insect is quite well described, its role in pig production is poorly investigated. Here we describe a case of a massive stable fly overpopulation in the gestation unit of a piglet producing farm in Austria that resulted in bleeding skin lesions in bitten sows.Case PresentationIn October 2021, the responsible herd veterinarian of the case farm reported of sows in the gestation area presenting with bloody crusts on the whole skin surface of the body and of bleeding skin lesions. 33/55 sows were affected by moderate to severe skin lesions. Reproductive performance decreased during the time of massive stable fly overpopulation. Sows in the gestation unit showed defensive behaviour and at a certain time point resigned and accepted being bitten by stable flies. After controlling the fly population, reproductive performance improved and even exceeded the performance before the massive overgrowth of the stable fly population.ConclusionsStable flies are a serious harm to pigs and should be kept in mind for improved animal health and welfare. Knowledge about the determination of Stomoxys calcitrans and early recognition of an increasing stable fly population in pig farming systems followed by proper insect control measures have to be performed to reduce losses caused by this harming insect.

PSXIV-18 Fit of the Zero-Inflated Negative Binomial Model to Analyze Fecal Egg Counts

Abstract Fecal egg count (FEC) is used as an indicator of parasite infection level in sheep. The distribution of FEC is non-Gaussian and typically overdispersed, often with an excess in zero counts. Quantifying the extent of inflation of zero counts can be difficult. Our objective was to assess the potential zero-inflation problem in FEC resulting from variation in infection with gastrointestinal nematodes by using a generalized linear model approach. The zero-inflated Poisson (ZIP) and zero-inflated negative binomial (ZINB) models are useful techniques to analyze count data with excess zeros; ZINB also handles overdispersion. The ZINB model has the potential to delineate ‘true’ zeros, in this case, animals resistant to parasitism and thereby with zero FEC, from ‘false’ zeros, animals never or minimally exposed to a parasite challenge. By distinguishing false zeros, those animals expressing parasite resistance may be more clearly identified. Two datasets on Katahdin sheep, a hair breed known to express resistance to gastrointestinal nematodes, were investigated; a smaller set (n = 3,048) with FEC and FAMACHA (FAM) scores, a subjective measure of anemia indicative of parasitism by Haemonchus contortus, a blood sucking helminth; and a larger set (n = 14,405) with FEC and a contemporary group (CG) designation, assigned based on the flock, birth year, management group, and FEC recording date of the animal. Among animals with FAM recorded, 14% had scores indicative of at least border line anemia. Amongst the 410 CG, 22% had mean FEC more than 500 egg/g, a threshold value routinely used to indicate a substantial infection level with H. contortus. For each dataset, the Poisson, Negative Binomial, ZIP, and ZINB models were fit and compared using R (pscl package) and SAS software, with the ZINB providing the best fit. In the models considered, FEC was the response variable and either FAM or CG was the explanatory variable, depending on the dataset. Despite evidence of parasite challenge, the true and false zeros could not be delineated in both data sets using these models. The estimated proportion of false zeros due to inflation did not differ from the proportion of zeros observed in the data set. Either all zeros coincided with no infection, which seems unlikely in Katahdins, or neither FAM nor CG provided sufficient information to distinguish resistant from uninfected individuals. Alternative or additional explanatory variables, such as packed cell volume or immunoglobulin concentrations indicative of parasitic infection, may be necessary to separate true from false zero FEC in sheep challenged with gastrointestinal nematodes using the ZINB model.

Repellent effect of two anthranilates against the tropical bed bug Cimex hemipterus (Hemiptera: Cimicidae) demonstrated in laboratory assays.

The bites and blood sucking of bed bugs (Cimex spp.) (Hemiptera: Cimicidae) pose a serious threat to human physical and mental health. Application of an effective repellent can prevent or reduce bed bug bites. Previous studies on repellent screening mainly focused on Cimex lectularius L. In this study, we investigated the repellent effect of two safe food additives, ethyl anthranilate (EA) and butyl anthranilate (BA), against Cimex hemipterus (F.), and also explored the role of antennae and mouthparts on C. hemipterus perception of repellents. Both EA and BA had a strong repellent effect against tropical bed bugs and their repellency was similar or lower than that of N,N-diethyl-3-methyl benzoyl amide, depending on whether or not a CO2 source was present. EA had higher repellency than BA and exhibited repellency to C. hemipterus for 3 days when a CO2 source was present. C. hemipterus avoided resting on 20% EA- and BA-treated harborages. Applying 20% EA and BA on rabbit skin significantly reduced the blood intake of C. hemipterus within 2 h. C. hemipterus could perceive EA and BA after their antennae or mouthparts or both antennae and mouthparts were removed. Both EA and BA had strong repellency against C. hemipterus, with EA being more repellent. Ablation of antennae and mouthparts did not affect the perception of EA and BA by C. hemipterus. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

Development of a Model for the Prediction of Lumpy Skin Diseases using Machine Learning Techniques

Lumpy skin diseases virus (LSDV) is a dangerous and contagious diseases that are mostly common in Sub-Saharan African, South Eastern Europe, South Asia and as well as Middle East, China. LSDV is transmitted through blood sucking insects which are double stranded DNA virus and belong to the family of Capri poxvirus genus family. The recent study proved and clarified that lumpy skin diseases viruses (LSDV) affected mostly cattle and buffalo in Africa, Asia and Europe with population of 29 966, 8 837 and 2 471 outbreaks respectively, between the years 2005 – 2021. Different machine learning approaches have been adopted for the prediction of lumpy skin diseases. An enhanced model was developed to improve the predictive performance of existing model and also, compared the performance of stacked ensemble of single classifiers with respect to optimized artificial neural network. The implementation was done with python 3.7 on Core i5, 16G RAM Intel hardware. The single classifiers are decision tree (DT), k-nearest neighbor, random forest (RF) and support vector machine (SVM). A feature wiz feature selection technique was adopted on lumpy skin diseases dataset coupled with the parameters tuning of the model before classification. Both stacked ensemble and optimized artificial neural network model outperformed the existing model. Stacked ensemble model gives accuracy, precision, f1-score and recall of 97.69%, 98.44%, 98.93% and 98.68% respectively. The results also showed that optimized artificial neural networks of 200 epochs outperformed stacked ensemble classifiers with accuracy of 98.89% and 98.66% of training and validation respectively. The developed model in a real world would assist in reducing the occurrence of lumpy skin diseases.

Clinical efficacy of Jaloukavacharana (Leech Therapy) in Thrombosed External Haemorrhoids – A Case Study

Jalaukavacharana or Leech therapy is medicinal leech therapy which is used in a variety of inflammatory conditions. It is indicated in Raktaja and Pittaja Vikaras. Its mode of action depends on the injection of leech saliva into patient's tissues during the process of blood sucking. Leech’s saliva contains numerous bioactive constituent which possesses anti-inflammatory, analgesic, thrombolytic, anti-coagulant and blood circulation enhancing properties. Thrombosed hemorrhoid is an emergency condition that occurs due to high venous pressure associated with severe pain in the anus. In the present study a thrombosed external haemorrhoids is managed with Jaloukavacharana and its efficacy was observed.

Occurrence, Activity and Control Options Against Biting Midges (Diptera: Culicoides) in Horses

Abstract Biting midges are insects which annoy horses as they cause discomfort and by the sucking of blood, they cause painful lesions that, in certain cases, can trigger acute allergic reactions. They also act as potential vectors of many pathogens of bacterial, viral and parasitic origin. The aim of this study was to investigate seasonal dynamics, abundance and species composition of biting midges, and implementing protection options at the Equestrian centre of the University of Veterinary Medicine and Pharmacy (UVMP) in Košice in the years 2021 and 2022. During this time period (of 2021 and 2022), we captured 4797 biting midges. Our results showed that in 2021 the most frequently captured species were C. obsoletus/C. scoticus (prevalence 86.6 %), followed by C. punctatus and C. pulicaris (prevalence 5.37 % and 3.86 %, resp.). In addition, C. lupicaris, C. newsteadi, C. furcillatus, C. festivipennis, C. slovacus, C. tauricus, C. clastrieri, C. dewulfi, C. fagineus and C. circumscriptus were identified as the minority species. In this year, the highest abundance of these insects (1758 biting midges) was observed at the end of June. In 2022, we detected a clear dominance of C. obsoletus/C. scoticus (prevalence 97.0 %) and the highest number of biting midges (655) was captured in mid-May). In this year, the minority species included, C. pulicaris, C. punctatus and C. lupicaris. The identification of the host blood showed that man (Homo sapiens) was the dominant host, namely of 80 % of the examined biting midges of species C. obsoletus/C. scoticus, C. dewulfi, C. punctatus and C. festivipennis. In one female of species C. fagineus we identified the host blood from horses (Equus caballusi). In 2022, we detected the blood of a domestic rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) in the species of C. obsoletus/C. scoticus.

Development of eco-friendly natural formulation for management of resistant tick infesting animals and humans

Almost all livestock species are suffering from tick infestations. Ticks are voracious blood suckers, causing significant blood loss in livestock resulting low productivity in terms of weight gain and milk yield, increased mortality and low-quality hides. Ticks also serve as the major vector of economically important diseases like babesiosis, theileriosis and anaplasmosis. The use of synthetic acaricides of different classes is the backbone of tick management programme. But indiscriminate application of these chemicals has led to the development of resistance against commonly used synthetic acaricides. It is become a challenging task to manage tick infestations using existing resources. The present study was undertaken to develop green nano formulation for mitigation of the resistant problem. The characterized green nano-formulation may be a suitable alternative to minimize the excessive use of chemical acaricides. The use of synthetic acaricides of different classes is the backbone of tick management programme. But the indiscriminate application of these chemicals has led to the development of resistance against commonly used synthetic acaricides.

In vitro Anthelmintic Activity of Croton tiglium Seeds Extract on Haemonchus contortus

Background: Haemonchus contortus is a blood sucking parasite whose habitat is the abomasum of ruminants, which poses a significant threat to the health and production of sheep and goats in warm temperate and tropical regions. H. contortus leads to anemia, hypoproteinemia, reduced exercise tolerance and edema subcutaneous tissue that can result in the death of animals. In acute infection, animals suddenly become anemic and many are found dead. Even in the chronic phase, the condition is accompanied by a mild but persistent parasitic burden and is characterized by weight loss, widespread malaise and, in some individuals, anemia. The objective of this study was to identify the anthelmintic activity of Croton tiglium seeds extract against Haemonchus contortus and comparison with some drugs used against internal and external parasites. Methods: A study was performed to evaluate the anthelmintic activity of the methanolic extract of Croton tiglium seeds against Haemonchus contortus using an adult worm motility test. Six graduated concentrations of extract (25, 50, 75, 100, 125 and 150 mg/ml), were tested at different periods and changes over time in the viability of worms were registered for 2, 4 and 6 hr. Normal RPMI-1640 medium and ivermectin 0.1% were used as negative and positive control, respectively. Also, a histological study was conducted on the the integumentary tissue of the H. contortus and the changes that occur in it were observed. Result: At 2 and 4 h post treatment, the concentrations of C. tiglium seeds extract (100, 125, and 150 mg/ml) have caused significantly higher mortality compared to the other concentrations, while, similar to ivermectin that caused death for nematodes within 6 h. The lower concentration (25 mg/ml) was significantly more lethal than the negative control (RPMI-1640 medium) at 2, 4 and 6 h of exposure. Each concentrations damages the cuticle and muscles of H. contortus. The increase in concentration is proportional to the increase in damage to the integumentary. The present study indicated that all concentrations of methanolic extract of C. tiglium seeds produced anthelmintic activity.

Achushana (sucking of blood): An emergency management of snakebite

Snakebite has been considered as a burning and difficult situation not only for the affected individuals but also for the doctors. An individual, seeing the snake feels terrified. When there is bite by a snake one feels that the life is in danger now and death is unavoidable. This is, as evidence say, the main cause of death due to snakebite. So a patient with snakebite when comes to the physician shows the serious signs and symptoms and the physician also faces dilemma in diagnosis which is the prime important factor to become success. A patient of snakebite commonly visits the physician with a huge number of attendants with anxiety, fear and lots of questions. This makes the situation more confusing and even the physician has to take tension. Ayurveda is unanimously agreed to be the most ancient health science dealing with almost all unwanted states of health (disease). The great scholars and founders of Ayurveda, along with the medical and surgical disease conditions, also discuss poisoning with priority. Among all the poisonings snakebite is considered to be potent one which need prompt action of the physician in absence of which the life of the patient may be lost. The Ayurvedic scholars Charaka, Susruta and Bagbhata very nicely describe the seriousness of snakebite (SARPADANGSA) and advice to take step to prevent the spread of the bisha by following a number of procedures. Out of all one procedure is (ACHUSHANA) which is said to apply with the aim to expel out the poison contaminated blood by applying sucking. This procedure is not supported by the modern Toxicologists. Hence, a discussion on the topic is seemed to have importance. Hope this discussion will be able to convey information not only to the Ayurvedic fraternity but also to the Modern field with a message to re-evaluate the concept in modern scientific character.

Larvicidal Potential of Nine Common Medicinal Plants of Tamilnadu, India

Mosquito are one of the most disturbing and blood sucking organisms that disturbs Homosapiens. Mosquito species included in the genera Anopheles, Aedes and culex are vectors for the various disease pathogens like malaria, dengue fever, yellow fever, encephalitis etc., for control of larval stages of mosquito herbal plants extracts are being tried. Nine medicinal plants extracts were collected dried and extracted with ethanol and used for the present study. The successful attempt is made to kill the larvae the premature stage of mosquitoes by using safe and socio-economical herbal plant mixtures. Azadirachta indica+Mentha spicata+ Coriandrum satium, Azadirachta indica + Ocimum tenuiflorum + Lawsonia inermis and Ocimum tenuiflorum +solanum procumbens +Phyllanthus niruri showed highest larvicidal activity. The medicinal plants were easily biodegradable than the synthetic insecticides, the plant products are less hazardous, they afford a rich store house of chemicals of diverse biological activity

MULTI-DRUG RESISTANCE, THE MANMADE DISASTER

As we all know that Health sector is one of the most important sectors in the form of multidimensional. But we have to accept that, people use to manipulating instead of choosing correction, by which the entire society will go under the huge dump of diseases. Our topic of discussion is totally based upon Multidrug resistance as an artificial manmade disaster. As we know health is one of the most important factors for our body by which people can live freely and for maintaining health different components are extremely important by default if any of the harmony is getting disturbed in any kind of aetiologies then it will turn into a disease which was the abnormal derangement of the liveliness. There are many factors for the derangement of the vitality or any form of spiritual life, which were indicated as the symptoms like fundamental cause, maintaining cause &amp; Exciting cause. Further, by the help of this we can easily relate the relations of these aetiological tiers, after that by deeply analyzing we can design the disease sheet also. The most basic causes of disease is the factors which are comes under the fundamental cause, either in the form of two different traits genetic or miasmatic and according to the fundamental trait, an individual can be counted under the effects of any of the maintaining trait by which it will set as a true chronic disease. Our target is the removal of the exciting cause because its the most superficial layer, then gives to maintaining cause and then the fundamental cause is going to be treated. If the fundamental cause is treated properly then the maintaining cause doesnt receive any space for its development by which the exciting cause will not play its role, this process is also known as Holistic treatment. If any of these steps is missing or jumped from one step to another without maintaining the chronology then it will know as incomplete treatment. The treatment option of pathological traits nowadays having a huge gap between the practical treatment and an actual treatment because the purpose of the treatment is at first identification of the aetiological factors, analyzing of the disease phenomenon, analyzing the aetiopathogenesis, implementation of the proper method to identify the pathology and at last suggest the suitable and proper management. In the current situation, we know people or better to say well educated people use to manipulate instead of choosing correction because of many reasons but the main cause is blood sucking business and marketing of drugs, where large amount of drug is prescribed to administer large doses in a vigorous manner, after that because of this vigorous prescriptions many more serious complication may arise in the form of Artificial chronic disease or Drug-induced pathologies. As we know that drug is alkaloids a material that is use to altered the physiological status or correcting the pathology of an individual. To achieve the final result of any sort of drug-specific receptors needs to be optimum. But due to the overuse of drug for the purpose of manipulating without the removal of maintaining cause it could be minimize the efficacy of the receptors in a multiple fold which is termed as resistance, Where the organism is getting habituated with the multiple manipulative impulse by which the pathological state become worst. Due to this the increasing multiple folds made the organism drug dependent as well as drug resistance and resistance towards many or multiple drug known as Multi-Drug Resistance. MDR is a major multiple health issues in the health sector which was characterized by reducing the efficacy of drug substances for the particular cases or for non-communicable diseases. MDR is classified into 2 types i) Resistance to the Anti- microbial agents 2) Resistance to the non- antimicrobial agents. Our main focus is upon Resistance to the non- antimicrobial agents i.e. anti-diabetic, anti-hypertensive, proton-pump inhibitor &amp; e.t.c. In the generation chart we can clearly showing that how the deterioration occur due to the exciting maintaining as well as the fundamental causes and involvement of the fundamental cause and also the drug effect are also demonstrated in the generation 2 diagram shown that degraded portion happen in the generation one in his inherited in the generation two and the degradation start from that day from that most advanced position of the generation one has become the most primary generation on the generation two and an again the degradation deterioration and the health. Finally, we have tried to figure out the reasons as well as solutions behind the Multi-Drug Resistance, The Manmade Disaster in a simple and proper defined manner.

Effects of histamine and antihistamine on the hard tick Haemaphysalis longicornis during blood sucking.

At the time of host attachment, ticks are very sensitive to histamine, but during rapid blood sucking they paradoxically require histamine. Using a rabbit model, we studied the effects of histamine and antihistamine during attachment and fast-feeding in different life stages of Haemaphysalis longicorns. We examined how they responded to histamine and antihistamine by analyzing the detachment rate, histology of feeding lesions, and post-feeding behavior. A significant difference (P&lt;0.01) was found in the detachment rate between experimental and control treatments throughout the observation period. Ticks exhibited a higher detachment rate (30.1%) at 12 h after histamine application during attachment time and on antihistamine-treated skin (25.4%) at 96 h during fast-feeding. After feeding on histamine-treated rabbits, the fully engorged body weights of larvae and nymphs were 0.7±0.36 mg and 3.5±0.65 mg, respectively. An average increase in body weight of 0.6±0.05 mg and 3.2±0.30 mg was observed for larvae and nymphs compared to the respective control weights. Nymphs and adults engorged after antihistamine treatment had an average body weight of 1.3±0.54 mg and 54±0.81 mg, respectively. An average decrease in body weight was observed in antihistamine-treated H. longicornis compared with control nymphs (3.3±0.42 mg) and adults (174±1.78 mg). Skin biopsies were collected after treatment, and differential histopathological characteristics were found between the treatment and control groups. Tick-infested skin collected from rabbits in the antihistamine-treated group lacked erythrocytes in the feeding pool, indicating that antihistamine impaired tick fast-feeding stage.

163 The Efficacy of Copper Oxide Wire Particles Alone or in Combination with Moxidection to Reduce Parasite Loads in Meat Goat Kids

Abstract Infections with the blood sucking parasite, Haemonchus contortus, are of primary concern for small ruminant producers, especially due to the prevalence of anthelmintic resistance. The objective of this study was to determine the effectiveness of copper oxide wire particles alone (COWP; n = 12; 1 g bolus Copasure; Animax Ltd), Cydectin alone (CYD; n = 10; 0.4 mg/kg; Bayer), a combination of COWP + CYD (n = 12) and an untreated control group (CON; n = 11) in reducing fecal egg counts (FEC) in meat goat kids. At weaning (88.4 ± 0.7 d), 45 meat goat kids with FAMACHA scores ≥ 3 and weighing 12.5 ± 0.4 kg were separated into the four treatment groups after accounting for initial FAMACHA eyelid color score, breed (Spanish or Myotonic), and birth type (single or multiple). Feces were collected on d 0 and 14 for determination of FEC. Pooled treatment group feces were also cultured on d 0 and 4 to determine gastrointestinal nematode (GIN) genera. Individual FEC were calculated, and treatment efficacy was determined according to the guidelines established by the World Association for the Advancement of Veterinary Parasitology. FEC were log transformed and analyzed using repeated measures in a mixed model with d 0 FEC as a covariate. Individuals were removed from the study if d 0 FEC was less than 400 eggs/g (n = 3, n = 3, n = 2, and n = 2 for CON, COWP, CYD and COWP + CYD, respectively). There was a mixed population of GIN cultured from pooled fecal samples (averaging 70.3%, 17.7%, and 12.0% for H. contortus, Tricostrongylus spp., and Oesphagostomum spp., respectively). Pre-treatment FEC averaged 1,262 ± 241, 2,794 ± 765, 2,050 ± 378 and 1,375 ± 221 eggs per gram (epg), for the CON, COWP, CYD and CYD+COWP, respectively. There was an effect of treatment on FEC with FEC on day 14 less (P &amp;lt; 0.05) for COWP (497 ± 200 epg), CYD (746 ± 334 epg) and COWP + CYD (559 ± 246 epg) treated kids than CON (1,701 ± 895 epg). CON group FEC increased by 35% while treatment with COWP reduced FEC by 71% (84 - 92% Confidence Interval; CI), compared with 56% (60 - 89% CI) for CYD and 67% (88 – 90% CI) for COWP + CYD. Even though all treatments were more effective than the CON, the effect of COWP + CYD was similar to COWP and CYD when used alone and no additive effect was observed. Under the conditions of this study, COWP, COWP + CYD and CYD were all effective in reducing FEC compared with leaving meat goat kids untreated.