Oaxaca-Blinder Decomposition Method Research Articles

New forms of employment: development of take-away delivery and urban–rural wage inequality

PurposeSince smartphones became ubiquitous, online grocery and food purchases through take-away delivery platforms have steadily increased in China. Nevertheless, whether the development of take-away delivery can ameliorate urban–rural wage inequality still requires further analysis. The purpose of this paper is to clarify whether this positive effect exists.Design/methodology/approachThis paper makes estimations based on city and individual levels combining the Chinese Household Income Project (CHIP) 2008, CHIP 2013, CHIP2018 survey data and the take-away delivery site data. At the city level, the Oaxaca-Blinder (O-B) decomposition method is employed to construct wage inequality index of urban and rural labors. At the individual level, this paper analyzes urban–rural wage differentials with high or low formal education level.FindingsThe rapid establishment of take-away delivery sites has resulted in an increase of 52.425 yuan on average in the annual wage of rural labors with low formal education level. When the cumulative number of sites increases by 1 unit, the annual wage inequality index decreases by 0.007 on average. Labors with the characteristics of rural household registration and low education can enjoy more dividends. Through inter-/within-industry decomposition, this paper elaborates formal education, age and cross-industry transfer as the main factors for the improvement of urban–rural wage inequality. Narrowing effect of wage differences between different groups in multiple sample slices also contributes to the mechanism analyses.Originality/valueTo the best of the author’s knowledge, this paper is the first to analyze the impact of take-away delivery development on the urban–rural wage inequality from the perspective of the establishment of take-away delivery sites. This empirical study will enrich the existing theoretical perspectives on urban–rural divide under the emergence of new forms of employment. The results indicate that new forms of employment represented by take-away delivery can not only promote economic growth, but also eliminate urban–rural inequality.

Gender health care inequalities in health crisis: when uncertainty can lead to inequality

BackgroundIn health crisis, inequalities in access to and use of health care services become more evident. The objective of this study is to analyse the existence and evolution of gender inequalities in access to and use of healthcare services in the context of the COVID-19 health crisis.MethodsRetrospective cohort study using data from all individuals with a confirmed COVID-19 infection from March 2020 to March 2022 in Aragón (Spain) (390,099 cases). Health care access and use was analysed by gender for the different pandemic waves. Univariate and multivariate analyses were conducted to evaluate the effect of sex in health care. Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition methods were performed to explain gender gaps observed.ResultsThe health care received throughout the COVID-19 pandemic differed between men and women. Women were admitted to hospital and intensive care units less frequently than men and their stays were shorter. Differences observed between men and women narrowed throughout the pandemic, but persisted even after adjusting for age, socioeconomic status, morbidity burden or the patient's place of residence. Differences in sociodemographic characteristics and morbidity burden could explain partially the gender inequalities found, mainly in the later phases of the pandemic, but not in the earlier waves.ConclusionsThere were gender inequalities in access to and use of health services during the COVID-19 pandemic. Inequalities were greater in the first waves of the pandemic, but did not disappear. Analysis of health crises must take into account an intersectional gender perspective to ensure equitable health care.

Contribution of high-technology procedures to public healthcare expenditures: the case of ischemic heart disease in Portugal, 2002-2015.

The magnitude of the impact of technological innovations on healthcare expenditure is unclear. This paper estimated the impact of high-technology procedures on public healthcare expenditure for patients with ischemic heart disease (IHD) in Portugal. The Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition method was applied to Portuguese NHS administrative data for IHD discharges during two periods, 2008-2015 vs. 2002-2007 (N = 434,870). We modelled per episode healthcare expenditures on the introduction of new technologies, adjusting for GDP, patient age, and comorbidities. The per episode healthcare expenditure was significantly higher in 2008-2015 compared to 2002-2007 for IHD discharges. The increase in the use of high-technology procedures contributed to 28.6% of this growth among all IHD patients, and to 18.4%, 6.8%, 11.1%, and 29.2% for acute myocardial infarction, unstable angina, stable angina, and other IHDs, respectively. Changes in the use of stents and embolic protection and/or coronary brachytherapy devices were the largest contributors to expenditure growth. High-technology procedures were confirmed as a key driver of public healthcare expenditure growth in Portugal, contributing to more than a quarter of this growth.

Socio-Economic-Driven Disparities in Chronic Illness and Disability Among the South African Children: Exploring Variations Within the Urban and Rural Areas

ABSTRACT: Existing literature on health inequalities often overlooks the nuanced dynamics, particularly among vulnerable children with chronic diseases and disabilities and fails to consider regional disparities within countries like South Africa. This paper asserts the necessity for a more granular analysis in South Africa, recognizing the varied health outcomes for children across different economic segments and geographical settings. Specifically, the health trajectories for children differ markedly between rural formal areas, regions under traditional authorities, formal urban areas, and informal urban settlements. Addressing the generalizations common in prior research, this study takes a precise, regionally focused approach to socio-economic-driven disparities in chronic illness or disability. It distinguishes between rural formal areas, traditional authority areas, formal urban areas, and informal urban areas, unveiling the intricate layers of health disparities. Using data from the National Income Dynamics Study, concentration indices, and the Oaxaca-Blinder Decomposition method, the paper analyzed health inequality trends from 2008 to 2017. The results uncover significant inequalities, with alarming trends, particularly among children with chronic illnesses and disabilities in traditional authority regions and informal urban environments. The paper's evidence shows that rural formal areas have experienced a decline in health disparities as opposed to the deepening divide in traditional authority-led regions. The urban analysis reveals a split: while formal urban settings often favour the wealthier, informal urban areas indicate a shift towards lower socioeconomic brackets. The decomposition analysis highlights the evolving socioeconomic elements influencing each region over time. These insights emphasize the urgent necessity for geographically tailored policy interventions. By understanding the distinct socioeconomic landscapes across various regions, we can formulate policies that resonate with each area's specific realities and challenges. Such targeted strategies are essential in reducing health inequalities and enhancing the life quality of children with chronic health conditions and disabilities, playing a critical role in South Africa's journey toward comprehensive health equity.

Variation in Household Violence and Maternal Autonomy in Rural and Urban Areas: Their Effect on Child Health in Cameroon

This study examines the variations in household violence and maternal autonomy in rural and urban areas and their effect on child health in Cameroon. Using data from Cameron Demographic Health Survey (CDHS, 2018), a mixed-method approach (Ordinary Lease Square Regression and the Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition method) was used for the analysis. The study found that household violence had an insignificant negative effect on child health while maternal autonomy exhibited a very significant positive effect on child health globally, in rural and in urban areas in Cameroon. Also, the rates of household violence and maternal autonomy are significantly higher in urban areas than in rural areas in Cameroon. Policy recommendations includes raising awareness, providing educational and economic opportunities for women, improving health care services and strengthening legal framework to combat violence while strengthening maternal autonomy through educational and economic initiatives which improves their own and child health in both rural and urban settings in Cameroon.

Union membership and the wage gap between the public and private sectors: evidence from China

As trade unions are active in corporations worldwide, their effects on the labor market have attracted global attention. However, there is scarce empirical evidence regarding how trade unions’ effects on the wage gap differ between the public and private sectors, especially in the Chinese context. Using national longitudinal survey data from the China Family Panel Studies for the years 2010, 2012, 2014, 2016, and 2018 and the Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition method, this study estimates unions’ effect on the wage gap between the public and private sectors in China. The results from the Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) method indicate the existence of a significant positive union wage premium nationwide. Additionally, the premium in the public sector is greater than that in the private sector. However, this effect becomes insignificant after accounting for individual heterogeneity using the fixed effects model. The decomposition results based on the OLS method indicate that the union coverage difference (the endowment effect) widens the wage gap between the public and private sectors; conversely, the union wage premium difference (the price effect) narrows the wage gap. These results indicate that a policy expanding union coverage in the private sector may effectively narrow the wage gap between both sectors.

Revisiting Earnings Differentials across Socio-religious Groups in the Regular Salaried Employment in India

In India, the differences in a range of development indicators, including wages and earnings, along the spatial, caste, religious and ethnicity lines have been a serious concern. This article revisits the wage disparities and discrimination among regular salaried male workers across five categories of socio-religious groups. Using nationally representative Periodic Labour Force Survey (2018–2019) data, we examine the pattern of disparity and the associated endowment and institutional factors leading to unequal labour market outcomes. Our findings suggest that all the groups—Scheduled Tribes (STs), Scheduled Castes (SCs), Other Backward Classes (OBCs) and Muslims continue to earn significantly lower wages than ‘Others’—the non-ST/SC/OBC/Muslim group. On decomposing the wage gap using the Blinder–Oaxaca decomposition method, we observe that the share of unexplained components reflecting discriminatory treatment continues to be significant. While the wage gap is highest for Muslims and SCs, discrimination is high against SCs and OBCs and lowest against Muslims. Higher education and institutional factors explain a significant proportion of the wage gap for these groups. For STs, urban location and higher education explain most of the differences. In addition, quantile regression results indicate a wider gap at the bottom and a narrower gap at the top of the wage distribution, signalling a ‘sticky-floor’ phenomenon for ST, SC and OBC workers. JEL Codes: E24, J71, J49

Ethnic disparities in out–of–pocket expense on medicines in Peru: Evidence from a nationwide survey

BackgroundDespite improvements in health insurance coverage, out-of-pocket (OOP) health spending remains a public health issue in Peru, and OOP payment has implications for disease treatment in ethnic minorities. We aimed to analyze the ethnic disparities in the OOP payment and estimate the gaps related to observable risk factors in the OOP payment on medicines by ethnic conditions during 2014–2016 in Peru. Study designcross-sectional study. MethodsWe conducted a secondary data analysis using the National Health User Satisfaction Survey. The outcome was the participants' OOP payment in self-reported medications. Ethnic minorities were considered participants who habitually spoke a language other than Spanish at home. Crude and adjusted linear regression models were performed, and the Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition method was used to assess the OPP payment differential by ethnic minority condition, explained by their individual and sociodemographic characteristics. ResultsWe analyzed 11,346 surveyed, the mean age was 40.78 years, and 57.67 % were women. There was lower OOP payment in medications among ethnic minorities in the adjusted analysis (Beta coefficient [β]: −0.11; 95 % confidence interval [95%CI]: −0.21 to −0.01; p = 0.043). In the Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition analysis, a gap of 0.19 USD in the OOP payment in medicines among ethnic minorities was found (p < 0.001), and the explained component by the variables measured in this research only represents 40.5 % of the gap (p = 0.001). ConclusionThere was less OOP expenditure on medicines in ethnic minorities. However, the measured variables explain only 40.5 % of these gaps. Therefore, we recommend future research that measures other variables that explain aspects of OOP spending on medicines not identified in this research. Likewise, our findings can be used to establish policies with an intercultural approach that adapt health documents to native languages or are disseminated by trained people from their communities.

Factors Explaining the Change in Socioeconomic Inequality of Disability in Iran: A Repeated Cross-sectional Study.

More than 15% of the world's population live with some form of disability. Assessing socioeconomic inequalities in disability and monitoring its change over time can help policymakers to design and implement targeted interventions to reduce these inequalities. This study aimed to assess the change in socioeconomic inequality in disability in Iran from 2000 to 2010. Data for this cross-sectional study were obtained from 2 waves of Iran's demographic and health surveys (2000 and 2010). The Wagstaff normalized concentration index was used to measure the socioeconomic inequality of disability. Contributing factors to the inequality in 2000 and 2010 were investigated by concentration index decomposition. The Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition method was used to determine contributing factors of change in disability inequality. All analyses were conducted in Stata14. The negative and statistically significant concentration indices (-0.132 in 2000 and -0.165 in 2010, P < 0.001) suggested more concentration of disability among poor people. The absolute value of inequality was increased by 0.034 between the 2 points of time (P = 0.025). Level of education (123.5%), household size (12.9%), age (-35.1%), and residency (in terms of Iran's provinces) (-19.3%) were the contributing factors to the measured disability inequality in 2000. In 2010, level of education (105.8%), household size (30.5%), and urban residency (-46.3%) explained the measured inequality. Change in disability inequality was explained by household size (99.4%), province of residence (54.8%), education (36.9%), socioeconomic status (20%), urban residency (-90.3%), and age (-47.7%). Iran suffers from significant socioeconomic inequality in disability, and it significantly increased over time. Interventions such as increasing health literacy and providing suitable job opportunities for people with low education level, improving the socioeconomic status of extended households, and paying more attention to the balanced development in the provinces and urban and rural areas, and attending to prevention, treatment, and mitigation of disability adversities among poor young and elderly people could be recommended to tackle increased socioeconomic inequality in disability and its unfavorable consequences in Iran.

Does Gender Wage Gap Exist among Farm Workers in Nigeria? Evidence from Decomposition-Matching Analysis

AbstractUsing a cross-sectional survey data of agricultural farms, we investigate gender-based differences in farm wages among farm workers by randomly allocating farm workers into treatment (female) and control (male) groups with a simple random sampling technique. We used the Blinder–Oaxaca decomposition method to establish the gender wage gap and Propensity Score Matching to address assumptions and heterogeneity difficulties that plague the decomposition technique. Results show that female farm workers earn ₦ 9,170.83 less compared to their male counterparts, which indicates an unadjusted gender gap. This gender gap in farm wages is explained by the specific factors included in our model, so upgrading these variables could reduce gender inequalities in farm wages. Matching results indicate that the gender gaps estimated with nearest neighbour matching and kernel-based matching are 9.8% and 21.6% higher, respectively, than the gaps measured by the decomposition technique. Thus, the matching procedure was successful in identifying a sizeable proportion of gender gaps that are unexplained due to discrimination between male and female farm workers.

Decomposition analysis of entrepreneurial activities in Japan: An international comparison

Entrepreneurship is critical to economic development because it promotes economic growth. Start-ups require a healthy entrepreneurial ecosystem to succeed, but being the world’s third-largest economy, Japan does not have a satisfactory level of entrepreneurship. The objective of this study was to find the magnitude of the gap in entrepreneurial activities in Japan compared with other similar economies and to find the significant entrepreneurial attitudes for this gap. Therefore, this study used Global Entrepreneurship Monitor data from 2001–2018 and applied the Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition method. Three outcome variables have been used for measuring the entrepreneurial activities: Entrepreneurship, Investment, and Future Intention of Entrepreneurship and the entrepreneurial activity gap has been decomposed in terms of four entrepreneurial attitudes (Network, Opportunity, Confidence, and Fear of Failure) in Japan. The results show that Confidence shares most of the part (50–60%) of the explained portion of the Entrepreneurship gap in Japan compared to other countries. For the investment gap in Japan, Confidence and Network explain most of the gap (about 60–70%), whereas Confidence and Opportunity are the most responsible (85–90%) for the gap in future business intention in Japan. This study is the first attempt to identify the entrepreneurial attitudes behind the entrepreneurial gap in Japan and provides important policy implications to enhance entrepreneurial activities in Japan as well as in other similar economies for sustainable economic development.

Socioeconomic inequalities in metabolic syndrome and its components in a sample of Iranian Kurdish adults.

The worldwide incidence of metabolic syndrome (MetS) has increased in recent decades. In this study, we investigated the socioeconomic inequalities associated with MetS and its components in a sample of the Iranian Kurdish population. We used data from 3,996 participants, aged 35 years to 70 years, from the baseline phase of the Dehgolan Prospective Cohort Study (February 2018 to March 2019). The concentration index and concentration curve were used to measure inequality and the Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition method was used to examine the contribution of various determinants to the observed socioeconomic inequality in MetS and its components. The prevalence of MetS was 34.44% (95% confidence interval [CI], 32.97 to 35.93). The prevalence of MetS was 26.18% for those in the highest socioeconomic status (SES), compared with 40.51% for participants in the lowest SES. There was a significant negative concentration index for MetS (C=-0.13; 95% CI, -0.16 to -0.09), indicating a concentration of MetS among participants with a lower SES. The most prevalent component was abdominal obesity (59.14%) with a significant negative concentration index (C=-0.21; 95% CI, -0.25 to -0.18). According to decomposition analysis, age, gender, and education were the highest contributing factors to inequality in MetS and its components. This study showed socioeconomic inequality in MetS. People with a low SES were more likely to have MetS. Therefore, policymakers and health managers need to develop appropriate strategies to reduce these inequalities in MetS across age groups, genders, and education levels, especially among women and the elderly.

What are the determinants of rural-urban divide in teachers’ digital teaching competence? Empirical evidence from a large sample

The digital divide between rural and urban areas is becoming the key factors resulting educational imbalance, which might be exacerbated by differences in teachers’ digital teaching competence. Therefore, it was crucial to explore the divide and determinants of digital teaching competence between rural and urban teachers. A large-scale survey was conducted with 11,784 K–12 teachers in China (43.40% from rural schools and 56.60% from urban schools). First, this study investigated potential factors for teachers’ digital teaching competence, including information and communication technology (ICT) attitude, ICT skills, and data literacy. Second, the data indicated the digital divide existed, i.e., the ICT attitude, ICT skills, data literacy, and digital teaching competence of rural teachers were significantly lower than those of urban teachers. Third, the Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition method demonstrated that data literacy and ICT skills were the most important determinants of the divide in digital teaching competence between rural and urban teachers. Hence, our research provided important insights for policymakers, school leaders and teachers to bridge the digital divide.

63-OR: The Contribution of Social-Needs Factors to Racial Differences in Type 2 Diabetes

Studies have attributed gaps in type 2 diabetes (T2D) between Black/African-American (BAA) and White adults to socioeconomic factors. We quantified the contribution of social risk factors to racial gaps in T2D in 6 Kaiser Permanente health systems across the U.S. We utilized data collected from the National KP Social Needs Survey conducted in 2020 among 10,226 health system members. We linked survey data to electronic health record data. Exposures included financial strain, food insecurity, and housing instability in the past year. The outcome, prevalent T2D, was defined as either a diagnosis of T2D or medication fills for antidiabetic medications. Self-reported BAA and White race were used to stratify data. Other covariates included demographics, insurance type, clinical measures, and comorbidities. Cross-sectional logistic regression models assessed the odds of T2D by race and the Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition method calculated the percent contribution of all variables to the racial difference in T2D. All statistical analysis were weighted to account for the complex survey design. Our final analysis included 1,223 BAA and 3,372 White survey participants. BAA participants were more likely to be younger, female, report more social risk factors, and have a greater burden of comorbidities. The prevalence of T2D was 22% in BAA patients and 11% in White patients. The covariates in the Oaxaca-Blinder analysis explained 43% of the 11% overall difference in T2D prevalence between BAA and White patients. Of this explained difference, the combined variable of financial strain, food insecurity, or housing instability significantly contributed to the racial gap in T2D by 11%. Our results demonstrated, that if social risk factors of BAA patients were equal to White patients, the racial difference in T2D would be reduced by 11% in our population with access to health care. However, the impact is relatively small and other social factors (e.g. discrimination) will be important to explore using this methodology. Disclosure S. Vupputuri: None. S. Kim: None. M. Clennin: None. L. Cromwell: None. S.L. Daugherty: None. Funding Kaiser Permanente Social Needs Network for Evaluation and Translation

Situating public management’s contributions to social equity: using decomposition analysis to examine U.S. child welfare outcome disparities

ABSTRACT Despite the importance of social equity as an ideal and goal, much work remains in understanding how public services may help foster greater equity – or create and sustain social inequities. Leveraging the Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition method, we examine the extent to which administrative centralization and privatization contribute to outcome disparities between Black and White children in the U.S. foster care system. We find that centralized systems tend to narrow the outcome gap, as do those with higher degrees of privatization. The paper’s discussion considers how these findings compare to prior work, and the implications for social equity theory and practice.

Explaining the Link Between Paternal Socioeconomic Position and Small for Gestational Age Birth: The Effect of Maternal Unhealthy Behaviors.

To determine the proportion of small for gestational age (weight < 10th percentile, SGA) births among fathers with lifelong low (compared to high) socioeconomic position (SEP) attributable to white and African-American women's unhealthy pregnancy-related behaviors. Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition methods were conducted on the Illinois transgenerational dataset of infants (1989-1991) and their Chicago-born parents (1956-1976) with appended US census income data. The neighborhood income of father's residence at the time of his birth and at the time of his infant's birth were used to estimate his lifetime SEP. Maternal unhealthy pregnancy-related behaviors were defined as cigarette smoking, inadequate prenatal care, and/or low weight gain during pregnancy. Among African-American women, births (n = 4426) to fathers with lifetime low SEP had an SGA rate of 14.8% compared to 12.1% for those (n = 365) born to fathers with lifetime high SEP (p < 0.0001). Among white women, births (n = 1430) to fathers with lifetime low SEP had an SGA rate of 9.8% compared to 6.2% for those (n = 9141) born to fathers with lifetime high SEP (p < 0.0001). Adjusting for maternal age, marital status, education, and parity, African-American and white women's unhealthy pregnancy behaviors accounted for 25% and 33%, respectively, of the disparity in SGA rates among infants of lifetime low (compared to high) SEP fathers. A significant proportion of the disparity in SGA rates between fathers with lifelong low (compared to high) SEP is explained in both races by maternal unhealthy pregnancy behaviors.

Public vs. Private Education and the Labor Market Disparities in Nepal: Evidence From the Blinder-Oaxaca Decomposition

ABSTRACT: The debate between private and public education is a widely discussed issue in personal and policy forums globally. In Nepal, private schools have grown significantly due to the perceived advantages associated with them. This paper tests if there are significant differences in labor-market outcomes for individuals educated in private schools compared to those educated in public schools. Research Methodology and Data: We employ nationally representative household survey data from the Nepal Living Standards Survey (NLSS III), conducted by the Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS) Nepal in 2010/11, utilizing the Living Standards Measurement Survey (LMSS) methodology developed by the World Bank. We apply the Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition method to examine the relationship between educational attainment and four distinct measures of labor-market outcomes: labor force participation, employment status, job security, and wage income. Initially, we estimate these outcomes separately for individuals in private education and those in public education. Subsequently, we calculate and analyze whether the disparities in estimated values can be attributed to differences in education. Our findings reveal significant labor-market disparities between individuals participating in private education and those in public education. Those with private education display lower rates of labor force participation and reduced employment rates, suggesting fewer working hours. However, those employed within this group enjoy more secure salaried positions. Furthermore, private education is linked to higher wage incomes, primarily attributable to longer educational periods. The Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition demonstrates that most of these disparities are associated with variations in educational backgrounds. Consequently, the results highlight the role of segregated education in contributing to labor-market inequality, emphasizing the impact of private schools in exacerbating economic disparities in Nepal. The findings underscore the significance of educational attainment in ameliorating disparities between individuals educated in public and private schools. To address these issues, policymakers should concentrate on strategies aimed at increasing the duration of education for public school students, such as providing free, quality higher education. By narrowing the educational gap between private and public institutions, the nation can work towards diminishing wage and job security disparities, fostering a more equitable society. These findings also have relevance for countries grappling with similar socio-economic challenges, initiating essential policy discussions.

Socioeconomic Inequalities and Ethnic Discrimination in COVID-19 Outcomes: the Case of Mexico

In Mexico, Indigenous people were hospitalised and killed by COVID-19 at a disproportionate rate compared to the non-Indigenous population. The main factors contributing to this were poor health conditions and impoverished social and economic circumstances within the country. The objective of this study is to examine the extent to which ethnic disparities are attributable to processes of structural discrimination and further explore the factors that exacerbate or mitigate them. Using administrative public data on COVID-19 and Census information, this study uses the Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition method to examine the extent to which disparities are illegitimate and signal discrimination against Indigenous people. The results show that although ethnic disparities were mainly attributable to observable differences in individual and contextual characteristics, 22.8% (p < 0.001) of the ethnic gap in hospitalisations, 17.5% in early deaths and 16.4% in overall deaths remained unexplained and could potentially indicate systemic discrimination. These findings highlight that pre-existing and longstanding illegitimate disparities against Indigenous people jeopardise the capacity of multi-ethnic countries to achieve social justice in health.

Migration and wage inequality: a detailed analysis for German metropolitan and non-metropolitan regions

This study presents new evidence on immigrant-native wage gaps considering regional-specific differences between 2000 and 2019 in Germany. Using linked employer-employee-data, unconditional quantile regression models are estimated in order to assess the degree of labor market integration of foreign workers. The applied extended version of the Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition method provides evidence on driving factors behind wage gaps along the entire wage distribution. Estimated results are presented not only for the whole of West Germany but also differentiated between metropolitan and non-metropolitan areas. On average, larger wage differentials are identified in metropolitan areas with at the same time a higher presence of foreign population. Detailed decompositions show that there are not only changes in the relative importance of explanatory factors over time, but also possible sources of wage differentials shift between different points of the wage distribution. Decisive explanatory variables in this context are the practised profession and the economic sector affiliation. Distinguishing between metropolitan and non-metropolitan areas, provides evidence that especially differences in educational attainment impact wage gaps in urban areas. Regarding the size of overall estimated wage gaps, after 2012 a reversal in trend and particular increasing tendencies around median wages are revealed.

Gender discrimination and inequalities in education expenditure in India

PurposeThe purpose of this study is twofold. Firstly, the study has investigated the changing scenario of gender bias in households' education expenditure and the socioeconomic factors responsible for it. Secondly, the study has estimated the inequality in education expenditure for the male and female students and determined the significance of socioeconomic variables in gender discrimination.Design/methodology/approachTo address the above-mentioned issues, this paper has used the unit-level data of NSSO 52nd, 64th, 71st and 75th rounds from 1995–1996 to 2017–2018. The log linear regression model is applied to estimate factor impending average education expenditure dynamics. The Oaxaca–Blinder Decomposition method has been employed to measure gender discrimination, and the Lorenz curve and Gini coefficient are used to assess inequality among girls experiencing prejudice.FindingsThe study has discovered an gender bias in education expenditure against females during the study period in India. Further, it has been found that gender discrimination against girl students is decreasing. Moreover, the factors such as age, religion, castes, MPCE (income quantile), type of institution, present enrolment and type of education are responsible for this gender differences.Originality/valueThis paper uses 20 years of household-level data for study and suggests that discriminatory behaviour of households and credit constraints of the underdeveloped countries prevent investment in girl's education. Therefore, the state must pay for education of girls by offering scholarships and free or heavily subsidized education. In addition to this, awareness programs for gender equality should also be implemented by the government, especially in rural areas.Peer reviewThe peer-review history for this article is available at: https://publons.com/publon/10.1108/IJSE-08-2022-0537.