Blend Stock Research Articles

Production of Sustainable Liquid Fuels

As the world aims to address the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), it is becoming more urgent for heavy transportation sectors, such as shipping and aviation, to decarbonise in an economically feasible way. This review paper investigates the potential fuels of the future and their capability to mitigate the carbon footprint when other technologies fail to do so. This review looks at the technologies available today, including, primarily, transesterification, hydrocracking, and selective deoxygenation. It also investigates the potential of fish waste from the salmon industry as a fuel blend stock. From this, various kinetic models are investigated to find a suitable base for simulating the production and economics of biodiesel (i.e., fatty acid alkyl esters) and renewable diesel production from fish waste. Whilst most waste-oil-derived biofuels are traditionally produced using transesterification, hydrotreating looks to be a promising method to produce drop-in biofuels, which can be blended with conventional petroleum fuels without any volume percentage limitation. Using hydrotreatment, it is possible to produce renewable diesel in a few steps, and the final liquid product mixture includes paraffins, i.e., linear, branched, and cyclo-alkanes, with fuel properties in compliance with international fuel standards. There is a wide range of theoretical models based on the hydrodeoxygenation of fatty acids as well as a clear economic analysis that a model could be based on.

Boosted Bio-Jet production: Unveiling the potential of a one-stage concurrent process of deoxygenation/upgrading versus two-stage sequential processes using Pt/Cl-Al2O3@Ni/ZSM-5 catalysts

Bio-jet fuel production from renewable bioresources is an increasingly attractive approach for mitigating the environmental impacts of aviation. Among the different methods available for deriving bio-jet fuel from fatty acids, catalytic hydroprocessing has emerged as a promising and commercially viable technique. Recent studies have focused on identifying suitable catalysts to produce kerosene-type bio-jet fuel, which can serve as blend stocks for aviation fuel after further cracking and isomerization. In this study, a bi-layer catalyst Pt/Cl-Al2O3@Ni/ZSM-5 catalyst was prepared and characterized using various techniques (including XRD, TEM, NH3–TPD, FTIR, H2–TPR, XPS, surface area, and pore size measurements). The thus-prepared catalyst is tested for bio-jet fuel production from Palm kernel oil (PKO). A novel one-stage process yields a high iso-alkane content with a low freezing point of –57 °C. The proposed Pt/Cl-Al2O3@Ni/ZSM-5 bi-layer catalysts in a one-stage process provided satisfactory results, with a conversion rate of 96%. The primary component of the resulting bio-jet fuel was alkanes in the C8-C16 range, with an isomers/normal-alkane (I/N) ratio of 2 and a proportion of 75.6 wt%. Interestingly, the produced bio-jet fuel using the one-stage strategy has significant potential for use as a blend stock to enhance the properties of traditional jet fuels (Jet A and Jet A-1, JP-5, and JP-8).

Production of Fuel Oil from Blends of Refinery Products for Powering Heat Exchanger

Fuel oil, also known as furnace oil is a fraction of crude oil obtained when distillation processing is carried out in the refinery. Due to the high viscous of the heavy fuel oil, that makes it difficult to be pump throughout the pipework of the power plant, it is necessary to produce a fuel oil that will meet up the required standard. The aim of this study was to produce fuel oil from the blend of refinery intermediate product which meet certain European fuel specifications outlined in the EN 590:2009 standard alongside NMDPRA Standards. The blending stocks obtained from the Warri Refinery and Petrochemical Company (WRPC) were first filtered to remove some particulate impurities before they were analyzed to determine their properties after which, they were introduced into a mixed-tank that has an agitator connected and the blending was done using the blending ratio obtained from literature. The fuel oil produced was eventually analyzed for properties such as: Specific Gravity, API Gravity, Density, Viscosity, Kinematic Viscosity, Moisture Content, Flash Point, Cloud Point, Pour Point and Sulphur content. The sample with a composition of 33.3% of Decant oil (DCO), 33.3% Heavy gas oil (HGO), 33.3% light cycle oil (LCO) produced fuel oil of specific gravity 0.916, API Gravity 22.95, Density 0.896, Viscosity 40, Kinematic viscosity 4.7, pour point -6.5 and flash point 109, The analysis of the fuel oil meet the standard for blended fuel oil, according to the ISO 8217:2017 Standard. The results confirmed that blending of decant oil with conventional petroleum diesel (heavy and light gas oil) has a highly significant effect on the properties of the resulting fuel blend. The results show that by increasing the heavy gas oil content of the blend, the flash point of the blend increases; while increasing the decant oil content of the blend results in a decrease in Cloud point. The results of the analysis of the produced fuel oil confirms that its properties fall within the acceptable range for Fuel Oil and can be used as fuel for fired heaters and furnaces of the refinery and other process plants.

Optimum Design of Naphtha Recycle Isomerization Unit with Modification by Adding De-Isopentanizer

Environmental standards have recently imposed very rigorous limitations on the amounts of benzene, aromatics, and olefins, which can be found in finished gasoline. Reduction of these components could negatively affect the octane number of gasoline, so the isomerization process is gaining importance in the present refining context as an excellent safe alternative to increase the octane number of gasoline. The main aim of the naphtha isomerization unit is to modify the molecular structure of light naphtha to transform it into a more valuable gasoline blend stock, and simultaneously the benzene content is reduced by saturation of the benzene fraction. In this work, Aspen HYSYS version 12.1 is used to simulate the hydrogen once-through isomerization unit of an Egyptian refinery plant, located in Alexandria, in order to determine the properties, composition, and octane number of the isomerate product. Many potential changes are investigated in order to find the best design that efficiently raises octane number with the least amount of expense. Firstly, the plant is modified by adding one fractionator either before or after the reactor, then by adding two fractionators before and after the reactor; then the configuration which gives the highest product octane number with the highest Return on Investment (ROI) is chosen as the recommended optimum configuration. The results show that using two fractionators before and after the reactor is the best configuration. Optimization of this best configuration resulted in an increase in octane number by 7% and a decrease in the total cost by 13%.

Hydrocarbon biolubricants from hydrotreated renewable and waste derived liquid intermediates

There is a need to support the biofuel sector by utilizing waste materials for its production and utilizing co-products through an integrated approach. Due to bio-oil's diverse composition, its applications for foams and resins syntheses are emerging, but most importantly, as biolubricants, product with increasing global demand. In this study, four hydrocarbon biolubricants (HBL) were produced via a hydrotreatment process. Two samples were produced using hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) of algae (HAL) and sewage sludge (HSS). Additional samples included animal fat (poultry fat; HPF) and non-edible oil (carinata; HCA). All four samples were evaluated for their tribological properties and compared with the mineral base oil (MBO). These potential biolubricants samples had viscosity indices (VI) ranging from 197 to 254, pour points (PP) from −10 °C to −20 °C, and Noack volatilities between 16% and 23%. The coefficient of friction (COF) for HAL and HSS was lower than MBO, HPF, and HCA, but the wear was higher than HPF. Large amounts of oxygenates and olefins imparted higher VI and lowered PP to HPF. Even though both HSS and HAL demonstrated higher amounts of paraffin, they exhibited lower thermo-oxidative stability, higher PP, and higher volatility than other samples. In the case of HAL and HSS, the aromatics could have played a more prominent role in determining the lubricating properties than the paraffin alone. The HPF had the lowest wear, highest VI, and lower PP but higher COF. The volatility and COF predominantly dependent on the cyclic structures, unsaturation, and heteroatoms. The results indicated that the hydrotreated bio-oil from HTL biocrude and waste precursors could be considered as eco-friendly hydrocarbon biolubricant blend stock.

Modulation of the Complex Spherical Packings through Rationally Doping a Discrete Homopolymer into a Discrete Block Copolymer: A Quantitative Study

The Frank–Kasper phase and quasicrystalline phase are an intriguing class of complex crystalline structures, which so far are sporadically observed only in a limited number of block copolymers. Incorporation of a homopolymer into a block copolymer has recently been demonstrated as an effective and robust approach to regulate the formation and evolution of these complex spherical phases. The experimental explorations, however, suffer from inherent chain length distribution of the blending stocks. In this study, we quantitatively assessed the phase behaviors of the block copolymer/homopolymer binary blends using discrete species with a precise chemical structure and uniform chain length, ruling out all interferences associated with chemical heterogeneities. Diverse spherical packings, including σ, A15, C15, and C14 phases, were captured by rationally tuning the chain length and loading content of the homopolymer. The short chains swell the spherical core and drive a transition toward the lattices with a lower interfacial curvature (i.e., σ → A15 → HEX), whereas the long chains localize in the center of the core and prompt the formation of the Frank–Kasper phases with the increasing particle volume asymmetry (C15 and C14). The experimental observation validates the recent theoretical advances, demonstrating that the blending strategy is a robust approach for structural engineering.

Geospatial Network Approach for Assessing Economic Potential of Ethylene-to-Fuel Technology in the Marcellus Shale Region

The Marcellus Shale region is rich in natural gas liquids (NGLs) and a likely future hub for NGL derivatives such as ethylene. A geospatial network model of the U.S. petrochemicals and refining industry is developed and utilized to assess the potential for the adoption of a technology for oligomerization of ethylene to gasoline, or a gasoline blend stock, as a means to utilize NGL derivatives available in the region. The model is a mixed-integer linear program with the objective of minimizing the total annual cost incurred by the regional industry. Case studies in which this technology is added to the industry network model are described, and sensitivity analyses are conducted to investigate the effect of model parameters such as the prices of crude oil and ethylene. These results can be used as cost target benchmarks for this new technology. More broadly, this work demonstrates a geospatial network modeling approach for evaluating new processing technology.

Analysis of laminar premixed flame structure of isooctane/2-methylfuran/air mixtures with a skeletal mechanism

The prospects of 2-methylfuran (2MF) as a biofuel and gasoline blend stock are quite high. Therefore, a skeletal chemical kinetic mechanism – containing 238 species and 1156 reactions – for the simulation of premixed flames involving isooctane (representing gasoline)/2MF blends is proposed in the present work. The proposed model has been validated against a wide range of experimental data at various pressures, temperatures and compositions. It is demonstrated in the present work that the proposed mechanism can predict the concentrations of gaseous soot precursors as well. Moreover, the compatibility of the NOx sub-mechanism in the present model has been assured through validations against a wide range of recent experimental data. The results obtained in this work suggest that there are little chances of co-oxidation reactions among the species generated from the initial decomposition of both isooctane and 2MF. Furthermore, there is around 26% variation in the peak laminar burning velocity when the mole fraction of 2MF is increased from 10% to 90% in isooctane/2MF blend.

NSF Response Case Study: Hazardous Materials Release at Intercontinental Terminal Company, Deer Park, Texas

ABSTRACT On March 17th, 2019 the Intercontinental Terminal Company (ITC) Deer Park, Texas river terminal and storage facility, comprised of 242 above ground storage tanks with a site capacity of 13.1 million barrels of hazardous products, experienced a tank fire. This incident would also become known as the “2nd 80s Fire” based on the identification of tanks impacted. The fire was contained to a single grouping of 15 tanks, with stored products including Naphtha, Toluene, Xylene, Benzene, Pyrolysis Gasoline, and Gasoline Blend stocks. Extended firefighting efforts resulted in volumes of water and firefighting foam that exceeded the capacity of the containment systems, resulting in the subsequent containment failure on March 22nd, which enabled the hazardous chemicals and mixture of various products to eventually reach the Houston Ship Channel. The surrounding industrial and residential communities experienced shelter-in-place orders due to the air quality concerns, and the vital waterway was shut down to commercial traffic. On-water benzene levels exceeded 20 parts per million (ppm) during the initial phases of the response near the facility while many areas within five miles exceeded the Occupational Safety Health Agency (OSHA) Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL) for benzene exposures. Benzene remained the primary chemical hazard to response crews seeking to contain, remove, and reopen the waterways for more than two weeks past the initial chemical release events. An interagency agreement was developed between the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) to assist in response activities, which included containing, collecting, recovering and disposing of the released materials from the shoreline and the surface water. The National Strike Force (NSF) deployed 52 personnel from each of the three Strike Teams, Public Information Assist Team (PIAT) and CG-Incident Management and Assistance Team (CG-IMAT). Due to the elevated presence of benzene, the NSF was the only USCG trained, experienced and qualified organic response resource prepared to respond to environmental threats with elevated concentrations of products that represented an inhalation hazard requiring respiratory protection devices. This paper demonstrates the significance of NSF's respiratory protection program, and how their capabilities can be used for both technical operations support, and also for site safety management, especially during complex spills or releases.

Isomer-specific influences on ignition and intermediates of two C5 ketones in an RCM

Ketones have been considered as potential biofuels and main components of blend stock for internal engines. To better understand the chemical kinetics of ketones, ignition delay times of 2-pentanone (propyl methyl ketone, PMK) and 3-pentanone (diethyl ketone, DEK) were measured at temperatures of 895–1128 K under 10 and 20 bar, at equivalence ratios (ϕ) of 0.5 and 1.0 in a rapid compression machine (RCM). To explore the impact of carbonyl functionality and resonance stabilized structures of fuel radicals on their combustion kinetics, high-temperature pyrolysis at 1130 K and relatively low-temperature oxidation at 950 K studies were performed in an RCM, and the time-resolved species concentration profiles under these two conditions were quantified using a fast sampling system and gas chromatography (GC). A new kinetic model containing low-temperature reactions was built aiming at predicting the pyrolysis and oxidation behaviors of both ketones. The consumption pathways of the resonance stabilization fuel radicals through oxygen addition and following reactions are promoted since the decomposition rates of these radicals are about 4 orders magnitudes lower than regular fuel radicals. The occurrences of the so-called “addition-dissociation reactions”, i.e., ketones reacting with a hydrogen yielding aldehyde or reacting with a methyl radical yielding shorter-chain-length ketones, are verified in pyrolysis experiments. Based on experiments and model analysis, the carbonyl functionality in both ketones is preserved during the process of β-scissions of fuel radicals and α-scissions of fuel-related acyl radicals, resulting in the direct formation of CO and ketene. However, the position of carbonyl functionality has a significant impact on the species pools.

Various adsorbents to improve the filterability of biodiesel

Cold flow properties are the primary drawback to the common usage of biodiesel as an alternative fuel to diesel. Biodiesel's cold flow behaviour is discovered for the main reasons of presence of precipitant or crystal initiate by minor components such as monoglycerides and steryl glycosides. The ASTM test for this precipitant is ‘The Standard Test Method for Determination of Fuel Filter Blocking Potential of Biodiesel (B100) Blend Stock by Cold Soak Filtration Test (CSFT)’. Therefore, in this study, the performance of commercial activated carbon, silica and beach sand as adsorbent is studied in improving the filterability of two different level of refined biodiesel. The adsorbents were used to treat the biodiesel by removing the impurities present in the biodiesel such as the monoglycerides and steryl glycosides compound from biodiesel using adsorption technique. The efficiency of the adsorbent is determined by performing the cold soak filtration test. Based on the cold soak filtration test, precipitate is not visible and the CSTF is within the 360 s limit for the both refined level of biodiesel. However, treatment of these biodiesel with commercial activated carbon, silica and beach sand resulted in further reduce in CSFT. Commercial activated carbon found to be the most effective adsorbent, followed by silica. This is because both adsorbents possessed high surface area of 657.0420 m2/g and 320.2724 m2/g respectively and high pore volume of 0.379097 cm3/g and 0.952320 cm3/g respectively which further enhance its potential as an excellent adsorbent to improve the filterability of biodiesel compared to beach sand which possessed lowest surface area and lowest pore volume of only 1.2630 m2/g and 0.001751 cm3/g respectively.

One-step transformation of biomass to fuel precursors using a bi-functional combination of Pd/C and water tolerant Lewis acid

Direct one-pot transformation of lignocellulosic biomass has been developed as an effective and sustainable strategy to produce fuel blend stocks and high value chemical building blocks. In this wok, a bi-functional catalyst system consisting of palladium supported on carbon (Pd/C) and metal triflates (i.e., Sm(OTf)3, La(OTf)3, and Cu(OTf)2) were shown to promote the biomass liquefaction in both hot-compressed water and supercritical ethanol medium, converting fir wood into oxygenated compounds. The highest bio-oil yield from hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) was 10.47 wt% over Pd/C whereas the highest bio-oil yield of 49.71 wt% was achieved from supercritical ethanol liquefaction (SCEL) over the bi-functional catalyst system of Pd/C and La(OTf)3. Higher heating values, carbon recovered values and boiling point distributions were further determined for elucidating the physical properties of the bio-oils. Gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC–MS) analysis of the bio-oils revealed the chemical composition of the bio-oils. Substituted phenols and cyclopentenone/cyclopentanone type compounds consisted of more than 60 area% of the total products from HTL, whereas phenol and esters represented the major products from SCEL. The major reaction pathways are proposed based on the GC–MS results, which include depolymerizaton, isomerization, dehydration, condensation, and hydrogenation.

New recipes for producing a high-octane gasoline based on naphtha from natural gas condensate

Oxygenates should be added to gasoline fractions because they are environmentally friendly and have a high-octane rating. This research investigates new recipes for producing high-octane gasoline based on gas raw materials by using isooctene. Blend stocks from naphtha from natural gas condensate, isooctene, isopentane, (methyl tert-butyl ether) MTBE, isopentane, ethylbenzene, toluene, and isopropylbenzene with different percentages are blended to select the optimal samples in order to produce gasoline grades A92 and A95 in accordance with Russian and European standard regulations (GOST 32513 and EN228:2012). Physicochemical characteristics and operational properties of various components of the fuel are studied. Results showed that the quality of the produced gasoline is highly based on measuring oxidation stability via an induction period, where the value of it is more than 462 min. This indicates that optimal samples do not form gum during storage. Moreover, power at full load, minimum specific fuel consumption, as well as exhaust emissions, including carbon monoxide (CO) content, nitrogen oxides (NOX) content, and hydrocarbon (CH) content are given good prospects for produced gasoline. Finally, the quality and quantity of naphtha produced from natural gas condensate which has low octane number were maximized by blending with components of gasoline for producing high-octane gasoline. Moreover, the content of aromatic, olefin and benzene for an environmental gasoline in the general case exactly meets the conditions of the Russian and European standard rules according to GOST 32513-2013 and EN228:2012. Furthermore, an environmental gasoline gives good prospects to refining companies in light of decreasing the overhead, enhancing the grade of product, and great effect on the environment.

Transesterification of Refined Bleached Deodorized Palm Oil (RBD PO) Using Homogeneous Base Catalyst and Methanol and Investigation of Factors Filter Blocking Issue in Palm Based Biodiesel

The aim of this study is to investigate the major properties of biodiesel causing filter-blocking issue in biodiesel especially for palm oil based, to identify the suitable solution to reduce or eliminate these factors for improving the filter properties of the palm based biodiesel by control the specific parameter (mono-glycerides during intermediate process and minimize or eliminate the Steryl Glycoside after post treatment. This study may give significant impact especially to local industry of biodiesel producer which operated with normal transesterification process and using palm base feedstock to conform international biodiesel specification such as ASTM D D7501 (Standard Specification for Biodiesel Fuel Blend Stock (B100) for Middle Distillate Fuels). In this paper the Filter Blocking Tendency (FBT) testing and Cold Soak Filterability Test (CSFT) testing procedure and result will be presented.

Coskewness timing ability in the mutual fund industry

The ability of mutual fund managers to time coskewness successfully can help them manage their portfolio’s exposure to potential losses and improve their fund’s performance. This study assesses whether mutual fund managers are able to manage the market exposure of their investment portfolios given a change in coskewness. We demonstrate that fund managers investing in Small Blend and Small Growth stocks possess the ability to time coskewness. On average, the fund managers of these two investment objectives increase the market exposures of their portfolios about 2.749 % and 1.340 %, respectively, based on their anticipations on future coskewness. Superiority is driven from the fact that the fund managers in small capitalization stocks are successfully able to manage the tail risk of their funds’ portfolios. The fund-by-fund results confirm that the number of individual funds succeeding in timing market skewness of the Small Blend and Small Growth investment objectives is larger than the remaining types. The main findings are robust when controlling for other types of timing ability, the periods of financial turbulence, and the construction of coskewness.

Catalytic pyrolysis of Napier grass with nickel-copper core-shell bi-functional catalyst

Nickel-copper (Ni-Cu) core-shell catalysts supported on phosphorus-modified carbon microspheres (mCMs) were prepared at three Ni/Cu mass ratios, and applied to the catalytic pyrolysis of Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum) under atmospheric pressure. The catalytic pyrolysis was carried out inside a custom-built one-shot two-stage fixed-bed reactor. The catalyst structure was confirmed by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and X-ray absorption spectroscopy. Remarkably, the Ni-Cu/mCM catalysts increased the produced alkyl-phenols by up to fourfold, and these products are an excellent gasoline blend stock due to their high blending octane number. At the same time, the mass of undesired compounds in the bio-oil including alcohols, ketones, and furan were markedly decreased compared to the case without a catalyst. The oxygen content of the bio-oil was reduced by up to 24 % compared to the non-catalytic case. The hydrogen/carbon and oxygen/carbon molar ratios were also improved after all catalytic treatments. Finally, a reaction mechanism was proposed, including the pathways of oxygen removal through dehydration, decarbonylation, and dealkoxylation. The presence of NiO in the Ni-Cu/mCM catalyst promoted the alkylation reaction to yield more alkyl-phenols.

Monoterpene production by the carotenogenic yeast Rhodosporidium toruloides

BackgroundDue to their high energy density and compatible physical properties, several monoterpenes have been investigated as potential renewable transportation fuels, either as blendstocks with petroleum or as drop-in replacements for use in vehicles (both heavy and light-weight) or in aviation. Sustainable microbial production of these biofuels requires the ability to utilize cheap and readily available feedstocks such as lignocellulosic biomass, which can be depolymerized into fermentable carbon sources such as glucose and xylose. However, common microbial production platforms such as the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae are not naturally capable of utilizing xylose, hence requiring extensive strain engineering and optimization to efficiently utilize lignocellulosic feedstocks. In contrast, the oleaginous red yeast Rhodosporidium toruloides is capable of efficiently metabolizing both xylose and glucose, suggesting that it may be a suitable host for the production of lignocellulosic bioproducts. In addition, R. toruloides naturally produces several carotenoids (C40 terpenoids), indicating that it may have a naturally high carbon flux through its mevalonate (MVA) pathway, providing pools of intermediates for the production of a wide range of heterologous terpene-based biofuels and bioproducts from lignocellulose.ResultsSixteen terpene synthases (TS) originating from plants, bacteria and fungi were evaluated for their ability to produce a total of nine different monoterpenes in R. toruloides. Eight of these TS were functional and produced several different monoterpenes, either as individual compounds or as mixtures, with 1,8-cineole, sabinene, ocimene, pinene, limonene, and carene being produced at the highest levels. The 1,8-cineole synthase HYP3 from Hypoxylon sp. E74060B produced the highest titer of 14.94 ± 1.84 mg/L 1,8-cineole in YPD medium and was selected for further optimization and fuel properties study. Production of 1,8-cineole from lignocellulose was also demonstrated in a 2L batch fermentation, and cineole production titers reached 34.6 mg/L in DMR-EH (Deacetylated, Mechanically Refined, Enzymatically Hydorlized) hydrolysate. Finally, the fuel properties of 1,8-cineole were examined, and indicate that it may be a suitable petroleum blend stock or drop-in replacement fuel for spark ignition engines.ConclusionOur results demonstrate that Rhodosporidium toruloides is a suitable microbial platform for the production of non-native monoterpenes with biofuel applications from lignocellulosic biomass.

Conversion of Microbial Lipids to Biodiesel and Basic Lab Tests for Analysis of Fuel-Quality Parameters.

This chapter describes lab-scale procedures for the direct conversion of microbial lipids to fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) for use as biodiesel fuel. Methods for the gas chromatography analysis of FAME profiles and equations to predict several fuel-quality parameters are detailed herein. This chapter also provides a complete list summarizing each of the fuel quality tests (e.g., sample size and equipment) that are required by ASTM International D6751 regulations for pure biodiesel fuel (B100) or blend stock. Recommendations for the decolorization of microbial lipid sources containing pigments are also included. This resource should provide a guide to basic conversion and characterization of microbial-derived biodiesel fuels and a roadmap for more-detailed testing required to assess commercial feasibility.

Physicochemical Characterization and Evaluation of Castor Oil (<i>R. communis</i>) for Hair Biocosmetics

This study reports the characterization of oil from Castor (Ricinus Communius L) seed oil. The biocosmetic potential of the castor oil was evaluated for hair through physico-chemical characterization. The various physicochemical parameters (iodine value, pH value, specific gravity, refractive index, peroxide value, etc) were tested in accordance with American standard testing method specifications and compared with argan oil. Accordingly, the parameters tested comply with some journals dealing with cosmetics. Biocosmetic has high potential as a raw material for synthetic cosmetics or blend stock substitution for cosmetics without any modification. The advantage of castor oil over other oils (sunflower, olive, soy bean, corn) would lie in the oil price.

Flash points measurements and prediction of biofuels and biofuel blends with aromatic fluids

The flash point of biofuels and petroleum fuels is an essential safety-related property for fuel processing, transportation and storage. Hydroprocessed renewable diesel (HRD-76) and synthesized isoparaffin (SIP), two biofuel blend stocks, were blended with commercial petroleum aromatic fluids (aromatic 100, 150 and 200) to investigate the impacts of aromatics on biofuel flash point and to formulate blends with identical flash point characteristics as NATO F-76 marine diesel and JP-5 jet fuel. To overcome the complexity of the fuel blends, COSMO-RS (“conductor like screening model for realistic solvation”) was employed to predict the flash point of these biofuel + aromatic systems. COSMO-RS calculated the flash point of alkanes and aromatics present in biofuel and petroleum fuels and the flash point of SIP + aromatics binary mixture systems. Based on the pure compound and binary mixture predictions, COSMO-RS calculations were expanded to develop surrogate mixtures for biofuels and aromatic fluids. The surrogates were in turn utilized to predict the flash point of biofuel blends with aromatics and to formulate blends with the same flash point as petroleum fuels. The COSMO-RS calculation also assisted the selection of aromatics suitable for blending with different biofuels.