Blank Comparison Research Articles

This or not that: select and reject control of relational responding in rats using a blank comparison procedure with odor stimuli

The blank comparison (BLC) task was developed to assess stimulus relations in discrimination learning; that is, are subjects learning to “select” the correct stimulus (S+) or “reject” the incorrect stimulus (S-) or both? This task has been used to study exclusion learning, mostly in humans and monkeys, and the present study extends the procedure to rats. The BLC task uses an ambiguous stimulus (BLC+/-) that replaces S+ (in the presence of S-) and replaces S- (in the presence of S+). In the current experiment, four rats were trained to remove session-novel scented lids from sand-filled cups in a two-choice, simultaneous presentation procedure called the Odor Span Task (OST) before being trained on the BLC procedure using odors as the discriminative stimuli. The BLC training procedure utilized simple discrimination training (S+ and S-) and added select (S+ and BLC-) and reject (BLC+ and S-) trial types. All rats demonstrated accurate performance in sessions with both select and reject type trials. Next, BLC probe trials were interspersed in standard OST sessions to assess the form of stimulus control in the OST. Rats performed accurately on select type probe trials (similar to baseline OST performance) and also showed above chance accuracy on reject type trials. Thus, we demonstrated that rats could acquire an odor-based version of the BLC task and that both select and exclusion-based (reject) relations were active in the OST. The finding of exclusion in rats under the rigorous BLC task conditions confirms that exclusion-based responding is not limited to humans and non-human primates.

Effect of Adding De-Oiled Kitchen Water on the Bioconversion of Kitchen Waste Treatment Residue by Black Soldier Fly Larvae.

With the continuous development of society, the output of kitchen waste (KW) is fast increasing. De-oiled kitchen water (DKW) and kitchen waste treatment residue (KWTR), two main by-products of the KW treatment industry, are produced accordingly on a large scale. The need to develop an effective technique for the utilization of DKW and KWTR is attracting wide attention. In the present study, black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) were employed as a biological treatment method to treat KWTR with the addition of DKW. The influence of DKW (0-140 mL) on the efficiency of BSFL treatment evaluated by the growth and development of BSFL, the body composition of BSFL, the nutrient content of bioconversion residue (BR), and the bioconversion efficiency of KWTR, was investigated. The results showed that the growth and development of BSFL, the body composition of BSFL, and the conversion rate of KWTR were initially promoted and then inhibited with the addition of DKW. Notably, the amount of DKW added in the T110 group was the most suitable for the growth of BSFL and the accumulation of body composition. Compared with the blank comparison group, the content of crude protein (CP), crude ash (CA), salinity, total phosphorus (TP), and dry matter (DM) of BSFL in the T110 group increased by 3.54%, 6.85%, 0.98%, 0.07% and 2.98%, respectively. However, the addition of DKW could steadily increase the nutrient content of BR, with the highest amount at 140 mL DKW. Following DKW addition, the contents of CP, ether extract (EE), crude fiber (CF), organic matter (OM), total nitrogen (TN), TP, and total potassium (TK) were increased by 4.56%, 3.63%, 10.53%, 5.14%, 0.73%, 0.75%, and 0.52%, respectively, compared with those of the blank comparison group. The study showed that DKW could be used as a nutrient additive in the bioconversion process of KWTR by BSFL, which provided a new method for the resource utilization of DKW.

Effective use of the blank comparison procedure in simple discrimination by infant capuchin monkeys: A methodological note.

In studies of simple and conditional discrimination, procedures are needed to measure those aspects of stimuli that control behavior. The blank comparison procedure is one such procedure. It was designed explicitly for assessing S+ and S- functions when discriminative stimuli are presented simultaneously. In this procedure, a neutral stimulus serves sometimes as S+ and sometimes as S-. Its discriminative function is defined in relation to other stimuli in the display. The present study aimed to prepare 2 infant female capuchin monkeys for the effective use of the blank comparison procedure in a simple discrimination task. First, simple discrimination training was applied up to a stable accuracy criterion of ≥90%. This training was followed by the replacement of S+ and then of S- stimuli with new stimuli. Ultimately, trials with the blank comparison were introduced. Following this sequence, both monkeys immediately displayed highly accurate blank-comparison performances without the need for stimulus control shaping or other preparatory discrimination training. Thus, this procedure sequence may be an efficient, effective method for establishing blank-comparison baselines for experimental analyses of S+/S- discriminative functions and perhaps for other applications in teaching simple and conditional discrimination performances to this species and others.

Formation of Stimulus Equivalence Relations by Exclusion: Evidence using the Blank Comparison Stimulus Procedure

Emergence of equivalence relations among stimuli previously related by exclusion was assessed by using the blank-comparison-stimulus procedure throughout baseline and test trials, in order to avoid problems involved in testing emergent relations with either baseline or novel stimuli as S– comparisons. In Experiment 1, participants were exposed to pretraining phases in order to learn to respond to a blank comparison stimulus as the correct one when the other comparison stimuli were incorrect. Then, they learned a baseline of conditional relations for the emergence of stimulus Classes 1 and 2. Thereafter, they were exposed to exclusion trials, in which stimuli from the preexperimentally defined Class 3 were introduced as undefined stimuli, whereas baseline stimuli were defined. They were then presented with symmetry and transitivity trials for all three classes (Group 1), or only Class 3 (Group 2), in three-choice matching trials. Most participants in Group 2 related stimuli previously related by exclusion as if they were in an equivalence relation, but most participants in Group 1 did not. In Experiment 2, most participants of a single group (Group 3) showed emergence of equivalence by exclusion and transfer of stimuli functions when exposition to exclusion trials occurred after demonstration of equivalence of the baseline classes, and assessment of equivalence was conducted for the three classes in two-choice matching trials. Conditions under which the emergence of equivalence by exclusion occurs are discussed.

Targeted research on the single role of lithium Bis(oxalate)borate in the film-forming process through a novel lithium salt-free electrolyte system

A blank comparison group of lithium salt-free electrolyte system, replacing the lithium salt of electrolyte with a redox shuttle agent, is constructed to give targeted research on the single role of lithium bis(oxalate)borate (LiBOB) salt, especially of bis(oxalate)borate anions (BOB−) in the film-forming process. By combining and comparing all available studies, such as attenuated total reflectance (IR-ATR), X-Ray photoelectron diffraction spectrum (XPS), electrochemical impedance spectrum (EIS), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) tests and quantum chemical calculation, the formation mechanism of the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) film is proposed. Results reveal that the prior reduction of BOB− anions can postpone the reduction potential and hinder the decomposition rate of carbonate solvents, but promote the formation of a dense, conductive and effective SEI film. This work provides a novel way to investigate the film-forming mechanism and has guiding significance for revealing the effect of other kinds of lithium salts on the surface film formation.

Effects of Between-classes Negative Relations Training on Equivalence Class Formation across Training Structures

This study compared three three-choice matching to sample (MTS) procedures on their probability to form equivalence relations for each of the three training structures: one to many (OTM), many to one (MTO), and linear series (LS). All three MTS procedures established the same within-class positive relations, but they differed in the number of between-class negative relations included in their baseline trials, with two in the standard (STD) matching procedure, one in the semi-standard (SEMI) procedure, and none in the altered (ALT) procedure. Positive and negative control baseline relations were assessed by using trials including novel stimuli or a blank comparison stimulus before symmetry and equivalence performance testing. The matching procedures did not differ in the rate of positive control that they yielded, but they did in the rate of negative control. The number of between-class negative relations in the baseline trials was directly related to the probability of equivalence class formation. However, this relation was different across training structures: it was lineal for the OTM structure, did not differ between the STD and SEMI procedures for the MTO structure, and did not differ between the SEMI and ALT procedures for the LS structure. Testing of positive baseline control by means of a blank comparison stimulus as an incorrect choice and testing of the negative baseline control by using novel stimuli as the correct choice proved more sensitive to the matching procedures and most discriminative between participants who formed equivalence relations and those who did not.

Learning Name–Object Relations After a Single Exclusion Trial in 18- to 48-Month-Old Children

Responding by exclusion is a well-documented phenomenon, but data on the maintenance of word–object relations acquired using this procedure are highly variable. The present study included a sample of 80 children, ages 18 to 48 months, to determine whether age is a critical variable in learning name–object relations after a single exclusion trial. The sample was divided into 4 groups according to age. After establishing a baseline of auditory-visual discrimination (familiar names and objects) in matching-to-sample tasks, 3 test blocks were conducted. Each block had 8 baseline trials and 2 probe trials: an exclusion probe (i.e., an unknown name was dictated, and the comparisons were 2 familiar toys, an unknown toy, and a blank comparison) and a learning probe that verified whether the relationship established between the unknown stimuli on the exclusion probe was maintained in a further test trial. The majority of the children chose unknown objects in the exclusion probes. Analyses of the proportion of correct responses in the learning probes revealed a significant difference in performance between the groups of younger (18–30 months) and older children (31–48 months), indicating an improvement in learning the name–object relations after a single exclusion trial in the groups of older children.

Generalized Identity Matching to Sample after Multiple-Exemplar Training in Capuchin Monkeys.

A multiple-exemplar identity matching-to-sample baseline was established to encourage development of generalized IDMTS performances in three adult male capuchins. Mask (blank comparison) or Shuffled S- procedures were used to promote select (sample-S+) control in baseline relations and to assess stimulus control relations in generalized IDMTS tests. The IDMTS baseline comprised eight 3-stimulus sets or four 4-stimulus sets. Probe trials with new stimulus sets were substituted for baseline sets in successive testing sessions and subsequently converted to new baseline relations. All monkeys exhibited high accuracy on generalized IDMTS tests. A monkey who was given the Mask procedure in training and tests showed generalized IDMTS with select relations predominating. Two monkeys who were given training and testing with the Shuffled S- procedure performed somewhat better on Shuffled S- IDMTS test trials than on test trials that contained non-shuffled test IDMTS trials thus suggesting that exclusion of familiar nonmatching comparison stimuli from baseline in Shuffled S-test trials contributed to the higher accuracy scores with the former procedures. Development of select relations appeared to be a positive predictor of development of generalized IDMTS.

Blank-comparison matching-to-sample reveals a false positive symmetry test in a capuchin monkey.

A positive symmetry test result was obtained with a capuchin monkey that had previously exhibited virtually errorless AB and BA arbitrary matching-to-sample (MTS) with different stimuli. The symmetry test (BA) followed the acquisition of a new AB relation. It seemed possible, however, that the positive result could have occurred through the exclusion of previously defined comparison stimuli and not because the new AB and BA relations had the property of symmetry. To assess this possibility, a blank-comparison MTS procedure was implemented that permitted the separate assessment of select and reject (i.e., exclusion) control with both baseline and BA matching relations. In this assessment, the monkey did not exhibit reliable BA matching when exclusion was not possible, thus showing that the symmetry result was a false positive. However, the study demonstrated the feasibility of using a blank comparison MTS procedure with capuchins. The present results may set the stage for more successful methodology for establishing desired forms of relational stimulus control in capuchins and ultimately improving the assessment of relational learning capacity in that species, other nonhuman species, and nonverbal humans.

USO DO PROCEDIMENTO DE MÁSCARA PARA VERIFICAR RELAÇÕES DE CONTROLE DE ESTÍMULOS EM MACACOS-PREGO

Diferenças sutis entre as relações de controle planejadas pelo experimentador e aquelas efetivamente estabelecidas nos treinos discriminativos são frequentemente encontradas em estudos com participantes humanos com desenvolvimento severamente atrasado ou com sujeitos não humanos. Grande parte das vezes, essas diferenças só são identificadas por meio de testes. O presente estudo avaliou a viabilidade do uso do procedimento de máscara para verificar relações de controle em discriminação condicional (emparelhamento ao modelo por identidade) com macacos. Foram utilizados dois macacos da espécie Cebus cf. apella como sujeitos. O procedimento consistiu no treino de emparelhamento ao modelo por identidade e testes de relações de controle, nos quais ora o S+, ora o S– era substituído por uma janela vazia (máscara). Com a remoção desses estímulos em tentativas de sonda, avaliou-se sua participação na determinação de diferentes tipos de relações de controle do comportamento de escolha: Controle pelo S– ou Controle por Rejeição; Controle pelo S+ ou Controle por Seleção; ou ambos, ou seja, Controle Misto. Os dados obtidos mostram que (1) as discriminações estabelecidas não deterioraram com a aplicação dos testes e (2) as escolhas nas tentativas de sonda permitiram inferir com sucesso as relações de controle vigentes. O sujeito M09 apresentou Controle por Rejeição inicialmente em uma das relações condicionais e Controle Misto nas outras relações testadas. O sujeito M16 apresentou Controle Misto em todas as relações testadas. Com esses achados, o procedimento de máscara pode ser considerado adequado para verificação de relações de controle em discriminações condicionais com macacos como sujeitos. Encoraja-se o uso desse procedimento em estudos futuros sobre classes de equivalência com não humanos para verificar se de fato foram estabelecidas relações condicionais arbitrárias modelo-S+ (i.e., Controle por Seleção ou Misto). Palavras-chave: procedimento de máscara, emparelhamento ao modelo por identidade, Cebus cf. apella.

Relationgship between expression Arc and learning and memory in hippocampus of insular epilepsy rat

Objective To research the expression of activity- regulated cytoskeletal protein in Insula Chronic Electricity igniting epilepsy rat's hippocampus,and to study the relation between Arc and electricity igniting epilepsy rat's learning and memory.Methods Adult SD rats were divided into model groups,sham operation groups,blank control groups.The model of rat insula chronic electricity igniting was built,and rats learning and memory ability were examined by way of passive avoidance test.The expression level of Arc in hippocampus was test by both immunohistochemistry and western blot,and the expression of Arc gene was test by RT- PCR.ResultThere was no significant difference of learning- remembering ability of rats between igniting group,control group and sham groups (P ＞ 0.05) in the first week after insular chronic ignition when passive avoidance test was examined.The increased learning- remembering ability appeared in the 2nd week (LT:48.87 ± 3.42 s; EN:2.75 ± 0.99) ,3rd week(LT:48.71 ± 2.77 s;EN:2.75 ± 1.15) after the ignition(P ＜0.05).After 4 weeks,there was obvious decline of learn and memory (P<0.05 ).When testing the molecular biology of Arc,there was an enhancement in expression of protein and gene for Arc in subgroup time point from 1 h,to the submit when 6 h,and to primary level when 12 h.The general tendency was to rise when one week(w),to rise fast when 2w-3w,to rise obviously slowly when 4w(P ＜0.05).There was no sense for false operation sets and blank comparison sets.Conclusion The general tendency of the expression of Arc in rat hippocampus after the chronic insular electricity ignition is consistent with the learning- remembering ability of epilepsy rats.Arc is closely associated with the learning- remember ability for epilepsy rats. Key words: Insula; Epilepsy; Activity- regulated cytoskeletal protein; Hippocampus; Learning and memory; Passive avoidance test

A note on select- and reject-controlling relations in the simple discrimination of capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella)

Controlling relations in the simple discrimination performances of capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella) were studied in two experiments using a blank-comparison procedure. The main goal was to determine whether monkeys would (a) select an S+ stimulus if another stimulus was substituted for the S- (indicating a select-controlling relation) and (b) reject an S- if another stimulus was substituted for S+ (indicating a reject-controlling relation). In experiment 1, two simple simultaneous discriminations were established, one of which was reversed repeatedly until rapid reversal learning was exhibited. During subsequent probe tests, some behavior was consistent with select- and reject-controlling relations, but there was also substantial variability. To control the variability, the procedures of experiment 2 were designed to establish select- and reject-control relations directly by training with the blank-comparison procedure. On subsequent probe trials, new stimuli were substituted for the blank comparison. Both animals exhibited consistent, reliable select- and reject-controlling relations. These experiments are the first to employ the blank-comparison procedure with non-human subjects. They also demonstrate a reliable method for generating select- and reject-controlling relations for experimental study.

Emergent Word-Object Mapping By Children: Further Studies Using the Blank Comparison Technique

Two experiments examined the emergent mapping phenomenon in Portuguese-speaking children aged 3-13. This phenomenon is relevant to developmental psychologists' interest in "fast mapping" of new word-referent relations and also to behavior analysts' interest in behavior that emerges without expl icit conditioning. We studied 52 children , using the "blank comparison" matching-to-sample technique described by Wilkinson and Mcllvane (1997). The technique allows direct measurement of the stimulus control bases of emergent mapping, for example, to determine whether new words and their referents are related directly or via rejection (i.e., exclusion) of previously defined referents. Children demonstrated both types of controlling relations. These studies systematically replicate prior emergent mapping research in a large cohort of non-English-speaking children. Also found were apparent developmental differences between older and younger children. Although all children tended to relate novel stimuli, the tendency appeared to decline as children aged. This study confirms the utility of the blank comparison technique in emergent mapping research and also provides the first data set from school-aged children .

Blank Comparison Analysis of Emergent Symbolic Mapping by Young Children

Eight typically developing children first learned to select pictures in response to dictated words in a three-choice matching-to-sample format. Next, the matching-to-sample baseline was transformed via a stimulus control shaping procedure: Matching trials displayed two pictures and a third stimulus (termed a “blank” comparison). The blank was to be selected if the dictated sample did not match either of the displayed pictures. The blank comparison baseline was then used to evaluate the children's response to matching displays that presented novel sample and comparison stimuli. The blank comparison method permitted the children to indicate whether the novel sample-comparison pair were related (by selecting the picture) or not related (by selecting the blank). The method was used to evaluate emergent symbolic mapping and learning of new word:picture matching relations by the children. This study illustrates new, potentially more informative methods for analyzing symbol mapping in young children. The methods were shown to have considerable promise for advancing theoretical analyses of emergent mapping in both behavior analytic and developmental language research.