Black Pepper Production Research Articles

Salmonella in black pepper (Piper nigrum): From farm to processing

Contamination of black pepper (Piper nigrum) with Salmonella is a frequent problem in retail and imported shipments. However, there is scarce information about the prevalence of the pathogen in the initial stages of black pepper production chain. This study sought to bridge this gap in research by determining the prevalence, as well as quantifying, and identifying the main Salmonella serovars present during black pepper primary production and processing. Black pepper (233) and environmental (175) samples were collected from farms (354) and processing plants (54) in Espirito Santo, Brazil. The pathogen was detected in soil (16.7 %), drying waste (20.4 %), fallen berries (3.7 %), threshed berries (14.3 %), and dried peppercorns (22.2 %) collected from farms. Salmonella was also detected in samples of raw material (11.1 %), export products (16.7 %), and processing waste (16.7 %) collected from processing plants. A total of 12 serotypes were identified, and Salmonella Javiana showed the highest prevalence (38.8 %). According to the results, contamination occurring in the post-harvest phase is not eliminated or reduced during processing. Therefore, the adoption of good agricultural and manufacturing practices, supported by hazard analysis and critical control points (HACCP), is crucial to mitigate this kind of contamination. These practices should be combined with decontamination treatments to ensure the safety of the final product.

Floral Morphological Variation in Black Pepper (Piper nigrum L.) Varieties and Hybrid Lines

The inter-variety crossing is a promising approach to increase black pepper production. However, successful hybridization hinges on floral characteristics. This study investigated the floral morphology of diverse pepper varieties and their hybrid offspring. Eighteen genotypes, including parent varieties and F1 hybrids, were cultivated in pots under greenhouse conditions at the Indonesian Spice and Medicinal Crops Research Institute, Bogor. Flower and fruit traits were observed. Results indicated variability in spike morphology. While most ripe spikes were yellowish-green, exceptions included LH 20-1 and LH 22-1. Ciinten and LH 4-5 displayed superior spike length and fruit set, contrasting with the shorter, less productive spikes of 20-1, 22-1, and 455-N2-97. Stigma receptivity and another dehiscence coincided in Ciinten, N2BK, LH 6-2, and LH 4-5, simplifying the hybridization process. Conversely, earlier stigma receptivity in Petaling 1, Petaling 2, Natar 1, Natar 2, LH 44-9, LH 20-1, and LH 22-1 facilitated castration procedures. These findings offer valuable insights for optimizing pepper breeding programs.

Trends in black pepper production in conventional and non-conventional regions of Karnataka

Trends in black pepper production in conventional and non-conventional regions of Karnataka

Comparison of growth, viability, sporulation, and virulence of Phytophthora capsici isolated from black pepper (Piper nigrum L.) on various media.

Black pepper (Piper nigrum L.) is an important agricultural crop in Indonesia. However, black pepper production in Indonesia is limited by plant pathogen infection, especially Phytophthora capsici, which causes Foot Rot in pepper plants. This pathogen contributes to a high decline in black pepper productivity. This study aims to determine the proper media composition for P. capsici growth based on the mycelial growth, viability, sporulation, and virulence of P. capsici on pepper leaves. The media used in this study were potato dextrose agar (PDA), martin agar (MA), carrot agar (CA), water agar (WA), corn meal agar (CMA), soil extract agar (SEA), and vegetable 8 (V8). The results showed that CMA media was the most optimal medium for P. capsici growth, as indicated by the size of the mycelium with a diameter of 8.00 cm on the fifth day after inoculation. The viability of mycelium of P. capsici was best found on PDA, CMA, and V8 media. Meanwhile, the optimum sporulation and virulence of P. capsici occurred on SEA media, characterized by zoospore production of 5.42x106/ml and symptom areas on leaves of 18.61 cm2 and 16.69 cm2.

Influence of weather parameters on Anthracnose in black pepper (Piper nigrum L.) in the upper Brahmaputra valley zone of Assam

Black pepper (Piper nigrum L.) production faces several challenges due to various diseases, with anthracnose being the most significant. It is caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (Penz.) Penz. and Sacc., a fungal plant pathogen that leads to severe infections in black pepper plants, both in nurseries and in the field. The occurrence of anthracnose disease is highly influenced by weather conditions. Epidemiological studies were conducted at Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat, Assam from 2019 to 2021 to determine the impact of weather factors such as temperature, rainfall, rainy days, and relative humidity on anthracnose incidence in seven different black pepper varieties. Upon analyzing the recorded data, it was found that rainfall, minimum temperature, rainy days, and morning relative humidity are the most significant contributors to disease occurrence. However, the role of maximum temperature, evening relative humidity, and bright sunshine hours was statistically non-significant. Data from 2019 and 2020 were further analyzed using stepwise multiple regression to estimate anthracnose incidence in individual black pepper varieties. These regression models were subsequently validated using data of 2021. The root mean square error values varied between 0.0001 and 0.0011, indicating that the models are acceptable.

Potential of endophytic yeasts as biocontrol of Phytophthora capsici, causative agent of foot rot disease on black pepper

Abstract. Safitri D, Wiyono S, Purbajanti ED. 2023. Potential of endophytic yeasts as biocontrol of Phytophthora capsici, causative agent of foot rot disease on black pepper. Biodiversitas 24: 5847-5853. Phytophthora capsici is the main pathogen of foot rot disease of black pepper. This disease contributes to a significant decrease in black pepper productivity. Conventional disease management strategies usually require the use of chemical pesticides, which can have harmful environmental and human health consequences. Introducing biological agents such as endophytic yeasts for controlling foot rot disease has minimal effect on human health and is sustainable. One technique to control foot rot disease is to use biological agents such as endophytic yeasts. The aim of this research was to find yeast against Phytophthora capsici. The methods used included (i) study development and identification of endophytic yeast and (ii) in vitro and in vivo antagonism screening of yeast against P. capsici. The results showed that 49 endophytic yeasts were isolated from the leaves, fruits and roots of three black pepper lines. Five isolates had selected based on the highest antibiosis in antagonism test by in vitro: END6, END21, END66, END87, and END14. Isolate END87 had a mycelium inhibition rate of 64.55%, and a low level of inhibition was found in isolate 21, which had a mycelium size of 42.81%. The molecular characterization based on the sequence partial of NL1 and NL4. Moreover, 5 isolates of endophytic yeast (END6, END21, END66, END87, and END14) were identified as Rhodotorula mucilaginosa, Hannaella oryzae, Cryptococcus tephrensis.

Black pepper pathogen suppression: Divergent rhizosphere fungal communities of healthy and diseased plants yield new insights for orchard management in Vietnam

Complex interactions involving soil physicochemical parameters and plant-associated microbial communities determine crop health. In Vietnam, this process is poorly understood in the context of black pepper production. Specifically, there is a dearth of information for improving the suppression of pathogenic fungi. Understanding the environmental dynamics influencing the distribution of these pathogens would facilitate the development and use of biological agents in black pepper pathogen management. Here, the molecular profiles of fungal communities from the rhizosphere of healthy and unhealthy Vietnamese black pepper orchards and their relationships were determined. Additionally, co-occurrence analyses with a previously constructed bacterial dataset identified taxa indicative of soil suppression. Alpha diversity of total fungi was influenced by only environmental factors, while that of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi was more responsive to orchard health state. Glomus sp., Rhizophagus sp., Purpureocillium sp. and Plectosphaerella sp. were the most responsive genera to orchard health state. Potential fungal pathogens were more prevalent in the unhealthy orchards. Co-occurrence network analyses revealed that unhealthy orchards were less connected, had longer path distance and were missing putative pathogen-to-biocontrol interactions common in the healthy orchards. Soil electrical conductivity and potassium may be key factors in differentiating fungal communities of unhealthy from healthy orchards. This work highlights important microbial species and environmental considerations critical to improved black pepper management strategies.

Identification of Piper species that are resistant to Phytophthora capsici, Meloidogyne incognita, and waterlogging in Vietnam

AbstractBlack pepper (Piper nigrum) is a spice commonly used in kitchens throughout the world. Black pepper production is devastated by a range of pathogenic agents, including Phytophthora capsici and Meloidogyne incognita. Many efforts have been directed towards finding black pepper cultivars that are resistant to these pathogens. In this work, a 39‐accession germplasm panel of species in the Piper family collected throughout Vietnam was described. Preliminary tests using P. capsici inoculation onto leaves were carried out to identify potentially resistant accessions. Next, candidate plants were inoculated with P. capsici mycelial suspension and survival rates were assessed 15, 30 and 45 days postinoculation. In addition, Piper plants were challenged with M. incognita by adding larvae/juveniles to growing pots. Resistance to M. incognita was determined by the number of root galls and the percentage of plants with yellow leaves 1, 2 and 4 months after treatment. Piper accessions were also subjected to a 4‐day waterlogged treatment. Two accessions (HUIB_PH30 and HUIB_PD36) demonstrated high levels of resistance to all biological and water stresses. Micromorphological characterizations revealed that the amount of intercellular spaces in the root cortex correlated with the resistance to P. capsici and waterlogging tolerance. Hence, the abundance of intercellular spaces can serve as a guide for further selection of black pepper accessions that are resistant to common diseases and tolerant to waterlogged conditions.

An Economic Analysis of Cost of Production of Black Pepper in Wayanad District of Kerala in India

The present study was conducted in Wayanad district of Kerala. Totally 100 respondents were randomly selected and interviewed from the district. The data was gathered in the form of prestructured interview schedule. The study revealed that average cost of cultivation of Black Pepper per hectare was incurred Rs 419606 which was found to be Rs 438600, Rs 412826, Rs 407393 per hectare on Marginal, Small and Semi medium farmers respectively. Input- Output ratio related to cost C was (1:1.94) (1:1.85) and (1:1.76) on marginal, small and semi medium farmers respectively. As per the size of farm increases the production cost decreases.

Knowledge of the Respondents towards Black Pepper Production Technology in Idukki District of Kerala, India

A study entitled “Knowledge of respondents towards Black pepper production technology in Idukki District of kerala, India” was carried out to study the knowledge level of Pepper growers. A structured interview schedule was developed to complete the study and 120 Black pepper growers were taken from 5 villages of the selected block of the District purposively. The knowledge level of the respondents clearly visible that majority 49.17 per cent of the black pepper growers had medium level of knowledge on black pepper production technology, 28.33 per cent and 22.50 percent of the black pepper growers had low and high level of knowledge on black pepper production technology respectively . It can be concluded that knowledge level of majority of respondents was medium.

English

For the implantation of one hectare of black pepper (Piper nigrum), about 25 to 30 trees are removed from the Amazon Forest to produce tutors for black pepper. As an alternative to the dead wooden stake (WS), there is sustainable cultivation of black pepper with tree species, with the living supports (LS) of gliricídia (Gliricidia sepium L.). However, there is inadequate technical information on the effect of black pepper cultivation with tree species on the growth, physiology, and production of the culture. Therefore, the objective of this study is to evaluate the vegetative growth, physiology, and production of black pepper, cultivated in a LS subjected to doses of nitrogen (N). The experiment was carried in a randomized design blocks, in split plots, with three replications in a field. The plots consisted of two tutors (dead tutor and live tutor of G. sepium) and the subplots consisted of increasing doses of N (10, 20, 40 and 60g N plant-1). The results indicated that black pepper plants in WS stand out in terms of initial growth; however, at the end of the first year of black pepper cultivation with LS tends to present a vegetative growth slightly like the cultivation with a WS. The production of green pepper was higher in cultivation with G. sepium, while in terms of dry pepper there was no distinction between the tutors, with only N doses affected, which was estimated at 37 g N plant-1 to obtain the highest productivity of dry pepper. Key words: Black pepper, Grain yield, Vegetative growth Nitrogen competition, Vegetative growth.

A study on the challenges in marketing in the Covid-19 affected economy by the black pepper growing farmers and recommendations with reference to Kerala

Unprecedented incidence of Covid 19, the global pandemic, made the marketing difficult for the spice growing farmers, especially for the black pepper farmers. Covid 19 has disrupted production, processing and marketing of black pepper at different points of the value chain. Since the spice industry is very labour intensive, it has got substantially due to lockdown followed by the Covid 19 incidence. It has affected the availability of labour, availability and proximity of the market place, share of produce sold through different marketing channels, quality and availability of agricultural inputs etc. These factors substantially affected the production and operational costs. This study has conducted among the black pepper farmers of different age, sex, income level, experience in farming, operational land holding etc. with in the geography of Kerala, a south Indian state where many of the farmers grow black pepper. This study is an attempt to investigate the challenges in marketing of black pepper by the farmers in Kerala after the incidence of Covid 19 pandemic. This study also provides recommendations to improve the marketing by overcoming different challenges raised after the incidence of the global pandemic, Covid-19.

First report of black pepper (Piper nigrum L.) anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum siamense in north-east India.

Black pepper (Piper nigrum L.) has been commonly cultivated as a spice crop in northeast India. In August 2021, anthracnose leaf spot was observed on black pepper vines with 50 to 60% of disease incidence in Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat (26.7509° N, 94.2037° E), Assam, India. On average, 80% of the leaves per individual vine were affected by this disease. Foliar symptoms initially appeared as chlorotic circular spots, which then coalesced into larger irregular lesions. The centers of the spots were brown, papery in texture, and surrounded by a yellow halo. Numerous acervuli at the center of the spots were observed. Ten vines from the orchard were sampled to identify the causal agent. Symptomatic leaves along with some healthy portion were cut (3 to 4.5 mm2), surface-sterilized in 70% ethanol for 30 s, rinsed in sterile distilled water twice, dried on sterilized filter paper, aseptically plated on potato dextrose agar (PDA) amended with Streptomycin sulphate (30 mg/L), and then incubated at 25°C for four days. Two Colletotrichum isolates were recovered from infected tissues and purified by the hyphal tip method. Fungal colonies on PDA were cottony, dense, white to gray in color, and with salmon pink conidial masses. Conidia (n = 50) were 13.6 to 19.8 × 4.2 to 6.4 μm, cylindrical, hyaline, single-celled, smooth-walled, and with rounded ends. Conidiophores were aseptate, hyaline, short and branched. Based on morphological features, the isolates were identified in the Colletotrichum gloeosporioides species complex (Weir et al. 2012). For accurate identification of two isolates, the DNA was extracted from pure culture. The internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region, actin (ACT), β-tubulin 2 (TUB2) and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) genes were amplified by polymerase chain reaction (Weir et al. 2012) and sequenced. The sequences were deposited in the GenBank database (ITS: OP297054 and OP296876; ACT: OP327082 and OP327081; TUB2; OP327086 and OP327085; GAPDH: OP327084 and OP327083). A BLAST analysis of ITS, ACT, TUB2 and GAPDH sequences revealed 99.5-100%, 99.9-100%, 99.9-100% and 99.8-100% similarity respectively to C. siamense for both isolates in NCBI database. The pathogenicity tests were carried out on potted four months old vine cuttings of P. nigrum L., which were kept in a greenhouse. Ten healthy plants were sprayed with 50 µl of conidial suspension of each isolate (107 conidia ml-1, 10 ml/plant). Five control plants were sprayed with sterile distilled water. The plants were covered with sterilized plastic bags after inoculation to maintain humidity and kept in a greenhouse at day/night temperatures of 25 ± 2°C and 17 ± 2°C (Zhang et al., 2021). Within eight days, all the inoculated plants showed symptoms similar to those observed in the field, whereas control plants were asymptomatic. The pathogenicity test was repeated twice. C. siamense was consistently reisolated from the lesions and was confirmed by morphological characterization and molecular assays as described above in this note, whereas no fungus was isolated from control leaves. To our knowledge this is the first report of C. siamense causing black pepper anthracnose in northeast India. The pathogen has significant potential for causing high losses in black pepper production. These data will help researchers to develop effective management strategies for this disease.

An Effective Inoculation Method for Phytophthora capsici on Black Pepper Plants.

Piper nigrum L. (black pepper) is a typical woody vine that is an economically important spice crop across the world. Black pepper production is significantly impacted by root rot disease caused by Phytophthora capsici, which has seriously influenced the industry development as a "choke point" problem. However, the molecular genetic mechanism of resistance in black pepper is unclear, leading to slow progress in the development of new black pepper varieties. An effective inoculation and precise sampling system for Phytophthora capsici on black pepper plants is essential for studying this plant-pathogen interaction. The main aim of this study is to demonstrate a detailed methodology where the basal head of black pepper is inoculated with Phytophthora capsici, while also providing a reference for the inoculation of woody vine plants. The basal head of the black pepper plant was pinpricked to damage it, and mycelial pellets covered the three holes to retain the moisture so the pathogen could infect the plant well. This method provides a better way of solving the instability that is caused by traditional inoculation methods including soil drench or root dipping. It also provides a promising means for studying the mode of action between plants and other soil-borne plant pathogens in agricultural precision breeding.

Characterisation of Trichoderma spp. and Assessment as Biocontrol Using Dual Culture Assay Against Fungi Associated with Black Pepper (Piper nigrum L.) Diseases in Sarawak

Black pepper (Piper nigrum L.) is one of the most widely used spices in food, beverage, cosmetics, and medicine. Black pepper production has suffered from various fungal diseases. Microbial biological control is an essential part of integrated disease management to reduce the heavy reliance on chemical fungicides. Trichoderma fungi comprise a large group of rhizocompetent filamentous fungi widely used in the biocontrol of plant pathogens. Three field surveys conducted on five black pepper farms in Belaga, Sarawak, identified three fungal diseases: yellowing, black berry, and foot rot. Based on the morphological and molecular characterisation, the identified fungal causal agents were Fusarium solani (yellowing disease), Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (black berry disease), and Phytophthora palmivora (foot rot disease). Twenty isolates of Trichoderma spp. were isolated from secondary forest and Biopark in Bintulu, Sarawak. Trichoderma isolates were characterised based on the morphological characteristics and molecular phylogenetic analysis using the rDNA internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region. Trichoderma isolates were separated into five distinct species, namely T. harzianum, T. virens, T. brevicompactum, T. tawa, and telomorphic Hypocrea lixii. Among the Trichoderma fungi, T. harzianum was the most frequently (65%) isolated species. Trichoderma harzianum (Isolates of TJ9, 10, and 16) showed antagonistic and inhibitory effects by 61 to 70% on in vitro mycelial growth against three common fungal pathogens of black pepper, P. palmivora, C. gloeosporioides, and F. solani. This study highlights the potential of using native Trichoderma fungi as biocontrol agents in the black pepper integrated disease management program.

Comparative Transcriptome and Metabolome Analysis of Resistant and Susceptible Piper Species Upon Infection by the Oomycete Phytophthora Capsici.

Phytophthora capsici is a destructive oomycete pathogen that causes devastating disease in black pepper, resulting in a significant decline in yield and economic losses. Piper nigrum (black pepper) is documented as susceptible to P. capsici, whereas its close relative Piper flaviflorum is known to be resistant. However, the molecular mechanism underlying the resistance of P. flaviflorum remains obscure. In this study, we conducted a comparative transcriptome and metabolome analysis between P. flaviflorum and P. nigrum upon P. capsici infection and found substantial differences in their gene expression profiles, with altered genes being significantly enriched in terms relating to plant-pathogen interaction, phytohormone signal transduction, and secondary metabolic pathways, including phenylpropanoid biosynthesis. Further metabolome analysis revealed the resistant P. flaviflorum to have a high background endogenous ABA reservoir and time-course-dependent accumulation of ABA and SA upon P. capsici inoculation, while the susceptible P. nigrum had a high background endogenous IAA reservoir and time-course-dependent accumulation of JA-Ile, the active form of JA. Investigation of the phenylpropanoid biosynthesis metabolome further indicated the resistant P. flaviflorum to have more accumulation of lignin precursors than the susceptible P. nigrum, resulting in a higher accumulation after inoculation. This study provides an overall characterization of biologically important pathways underlying the resistance of P. flaviflorum, which theoretically explains the advantage of using this species as rootstock for the management of oomycete pathogen in black pepper production.

Scenario of Black Pepper Production in North-East India

India, the land of spices is one of the major exporters and consumers of black pepper. India lost its top position 20 years ago in pepper production despite the land of origin. Black pepper is cultivated commercially in southern states and on a small scale in north eastern India at present. The farmers started cultivation of black pepper in north eastern states way back. Initially the production from North east India contributed only 1% of country’s total production but currently it is one of the major pepper producers contributing 10% of total production. The North eastern region provides tremendous scope for the cultivation because of diverse agro-climate, well-distributed rainfall, and fertile virgin land. Even though north east India is bestowed with ample of natural resources, growers are still not able to harness them efficiently. This paper discusses the current scenario, constraints, and future thrust of pepper production in the north eastern region.

Mapping and Assessing Black Pepper Growth using Time Series and Ground Data: A Case Study for Small Scale Cultivation in Bintulu, Sarawak

Mapping of crop cultivation using remote sensing immensely facilitate crop management and prediction. The capability to provide informative data enables users to monitor and manage their crops with optimum expenditure. Hence, this study was purposed on black pepper farm to establish an informative map of black pepper farm (SF, TF) in Sungai Plan, Bintulu, Sarawak using Landsat 8 OLI time series and ground truth data. Images from Landsat 8 OLI were retrieved and images were classified using Support Vector Machine (SVM). Extraction of farmland elevations was produced using black pepper points collected and processed through ArcGIS 10.4 software. Black pepper growth was measured through the percentage of height and DBH developed throughout this study. It was identified in this study that; (1) mapping black pepper farm using Landsat 8 OLI and SVM provides overall accuracy >70% and Kappa Coefficient >60% and, (2) the optimum black pepper growth was observed at elevation range between 39m - 50m. This study demonstrated that detailed information on geography and black pepper growth can enhance black pepper productivity and management.

ANALISIS PENDAPATAN DAN TINGKAT KESEJAHTERAAN RUMAH TANGGA PETANI LADA DI KECAMATAN ABUNG BARAT KABUPATEN LAMPUNG UTARA

The purposes of this research are to find out the income of pepper farming, household income, level of household welfare, and factors that affect the welfare of pepper farmer households in Abung Barat Sub-District. The location was determined purposively with the consideration that Abung Barat Sub-District is the center of black pepper production. The number of respondents in this research is 63 respondents taken randomly. Data were collected from April to May 2019. The analytical methods used are farming analysis, the analysis of Sajogyo and Subyective welfare levels, and binary logit analysis. The results showed that average income of pepper farming is IDR8,356,590.51/year, average household income is IDR20,055,616.61/year, based on the criteria of Sajogyo 61.90 percent of the respondent pepper farmer households are included in the sufficient category, and based on the criteria subyektif that 68.25 percent of pepper farmer households are included in the sufficient category. The factors that influence the level of household welfare of pepper farmers are the number of family members and income.Key words: farmers income, pepper, welfare

Rapid Genome-Wide Location-Specific Polymorphic SSR Marker Discovery in Black Pepper by GBS Approach.

Black pepper (Piper nigrum), the “King of Spices,” is an economically important spice in India and is known for its medicinal and cultural values. SSRs, the tandem repeats of small DNA sequences, are often polymorphic in nature with diverse applications. For population structure, QTL/gene discovery, MAS, and diversity analysis, it is imperative to have their location specificity. The existing PinigSSRdb catalogs ~70K putative SSR markers but these are anonymous (unknown chromosomal location), based on 916 scaffolds rather than 26 chromosomes. Under this study, we generated ddRAD sequence data of 29 black pepper genotypes from all over India, being low-cost and most efficient technique for the identification of polymorphic markers. The major limitation of ddRAD with compromised/non-uniform coverage has been successfully overcome by taking advantage of chromosome-wise data availability. The latest black pepper genome assembly was used to extract genome-wide SSRs. A total of 276,230 genomic SSRs were mined distributed over 26 chromosomes, with relative density of 362.88 SSRs/Mb and average distance of 2.76 Kb between two SSRs. This assembly was also used to find the polymorphic SSRs in the generated GBS data of 29 black pepper genotypes utilizing rapid and cost-effective method giving 3,176 polymorphic SSRs, out of which 2015 were found to be hypervariable. The developed web-genomic resource, BlackP2MSATdb (http://webtom.cabgrid.res.in/blackp2msatdb/), is the largest and first reported web resource for genomic and polymorphic SSRs of black pepper, which is useful to develop varietal signature, coreset, physical map, QTL/gene identification, and MAS in endeavor of black pepper production.