Bituminous Carbon Research Articles

Geochemical and Organic Petrological Characteristics of the Bituminous Carbonate Succession (Upper Cretaceous Shu'ayb Formation) in Northern Jordan: Implications for Organic Matter Input and Paleosalinity, Paleoredox, and Paleoclimatic Conditions.

Bituminous carbonate rocks of the Upper Cretaceous Shu'ayb Formation from the Ajloun outcrop in Northern Jordan were geochemically and petrologically analyzed in this study. This study integrates kerogen microscopy results with geochemical results (i.e., biomarker, stable carbon isotope, and major elemental compositions) to understand the organic matter (OM) inputs and to reveal the dispositional setting and its effect on the occurrence of OM. The Shu'ayb bituminous carbonate rocks have high total organic carbon (TOC) and sulfur (S) contents, with average values of 12.3 and 4.59 wt %, respectively, indicating redox conditions during their precipitation. The high abundance of alginite (i.e., lamalginite) in the Shu'ayb bituminous carbonate sediments is a further evidence for redox conditions. The finding of mainly marine-derived OM was also demonstrated by the biomarker distribution and carbon isotope composition. The biomarkers are represented by a narrow Pr/Ph ratio of up to 0.97, abundance of tricyclic terpanes, and high C27 regular sterane, indicating that the OM was primarily derived from phytoplankton algae, along with small amounts of land plant-derived materials, and were accumulated under reducing conditions. The studied Shu'ayb bituminous carbonate facies is composed of mainly calcium (CaO; average, 45.10 wt %), with significant amounts of silicon (Si2O3; avg., 9.35 wt %), aluminum (Al2O3; avg., 6.91 wt %), and phosphorus (P2O3; avg., 1.47 wt %) and low amounts of iron (Fe2O3) and titanium (TiO2) of less than 1 wt %, indicating that the detrital influx was low in an open water depth system with higher primary bioproductivity. The geochemical proxy suggests that the Shu'ayb bituminous carbonate facies was established in a saline water environment, with Ca/Ca + Fe and S/TOC values of more than 0.9 and 0.50, respectively, which could be attributed to the increase in reducing conditions of the water column. The chemical index of alteration values of more than 0.8 also indicate that the Shu'ayb bituminous carbonate facies formed during warm and humid climatic conditions, thereby resulting in intense subaerial weathering.

Electrodes with excellent capacitance: Influence of micro-mesoporosity in derived bituminous carbon

Mexican bituminous carbon (MXBC) was the subject of a study to investigate whether its performance as an electrical capacitor is comparable to that of other carbon sources. Furthermore, we investigated the role of mesopores, micropores, and surface oxygenated functional group (OFG) populations induced by chemical activation processes that favor a higher capacitance. The proposed activation methodology includes different mass ratios (KOH:MXBC) and N2 thermal treatment. This increases the surface area and modulates the pore size, as determined by N2 isotherms, PXRD, SEM, and Raman studies. The chemical environment was elucidated using high-resolution XPS analysis and electrochemical studies, including EIS, CV (in different electrolytes), and charge/discharge cycles. The obtained materials showed values of capacitance (F g−1): 120 (MXCB), 135.87 (1:1), 152.48 (2:1) and 177.78 (3:1), superior to that reported for Vulcan carbon. The best material features are the following: BET surface of 1196 m2 g−1, micropore volume (Vmic) of 0.15 cm3 g−1 and mesopore-macropore volume of 0.57 cm3 g−1, the greatest homogeneity (C-CO) and several oxygenated functional groups (CO, CO, COO) quantified by XPS, along with the lowest resistivity to ionic transport obtained from electrical equivalent circuit model.

Exploring the polarization window during fluoride electrosorption in two activated carbons with significant differences in their pore-size distribution

This work reports the electrosorption of fluoride by two commercial activated carbons (coconut-shell and bituminous carbons) with significant differences in their pore-size distribution but with a similar surface area, surface chemistry and charging processes. The coconut-shell carbon is 95% microporous, while the bituminous carbon presents micro (75%) and mesoporosity (25%). Fluoride electrosorption was evaluated in sacrifice cells by polarizing at several potentials (Ecell = 0, 1.2, 1.6, 2 and 2.4 V). The fluoride removal capacity and rate without polarizing was really low and increased at different degrees as a function of increasing the applied potential for both carbons. At 2 Vcell, the bituminous and coconut-shell carbons increased their capacity from 0.073 to 0.431 mg g−1 and from 0.047 to 0.256 mg g−1, respectively, compared to conventional adsorption. On the other hand, the removal rate of the bituminous carbon was ∼ 4 times faster than that of the coconut-shell carbon at short times. This was associated to a higher presence of mesopores, as they enhance the mass-transport and the accessibility of the anion to the polarizable surface, and present less overlapping of the electrical double-layer (EDL). In this regard, a first approximation of the decrease of the EDL thickness was obtained from mathematical approximations and the obtained experimental results at 2 Vcell, in which the overlapping decreased by half, from a pore width of 18.67 nm to ∼ 9.5 nm. Parasitic faradaic reactions were induced at all the applied potentials, which decreased the charge efficiency of the process, although these reactions were more significant at 2.4 Vcell.

Characterization of glass fiber bituminous coal tar reinforced Polymer Matrix Composites for high performance applications

Composite materials are better and are used than other conventional structural materials because they offer superior performance, high specific strength and stiffness, excellent fatigue resistance, low weight and design flexibility. These above-mentioned properties have become the winning alliance that impels fibrous composite materials into new arenas. Glass Fiber/Epoxy Polymer Reinforced Plastic composites are widely used over other orthodox engineering materials in the Automobile and Aerospace industry owing to the improved properties. In the present work, an attempt has been made to study the properties of combination of unidirectional E-glass Fibers and carbon reinforced matrix (Bituminous coal tar + Epoxy) with an increase in weight proportions (wt%) of coal tar from 0 wt% till 10 wt%. The properties of cryogenically exposed Glass - Fiber Bituminous carbon coal polymer composites (GBCPC) are studied and compared with that of unexposed. The composites density was found to increase with bituminous coal tar in matrix. The Hardness, Ultimate Tensile Strength and Inter-Laminar Shear Strength of the composites witnessed an increase with greater matrix reinforcement wt% and after cryogenically exposure hardness and ultimate strength have witnessed an increase but Inter-Laminar Shear Strength shows phenomenological behavior, it can be due to micro cracks as well as delamination in the composites due to thermal residual stresses. The sliding wear test was conducted using Taguchi L16 method. The dry sliding wear of the cryogenically exposed specimen displayed higher resistance to wear.

Integrating granular activated carbon in the post-treatment of membrane and settler effluents to improve organic micropollutants removal

Granular activated carbon (GAC) is applied as post-treatment technology in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in order to increase the elimination of organic micropollutants (OMPs). However, the efficiency and life-time of GAC depend on several parameters, such as the quality of the effluent to be treated or the type of GAC. In the present paper, two types of GAC, based on bituminous carbon (BC-GAC) and coconut shell (CS-GAC), were assessed from a technical, economic and environmental point of view to further remove OMPs present in two secondary effluents, coming from integrated biological systems with a membrane or a settler, respectively. Although all GAC filters were efficient in removing selected OMPs, the quality of the secondary effluent had a strong influence on the lifespan of adsorbent material and the technical operability of the filtration systems. While GAC filters treating membrane effluent were highly effective to remove recalcitrant compounds, such as carbamazepine and diazepam (>80%), even after 430 d of operation (>30,800 BV), the efficiency of GAC filters treating settler effluent quickly lowered to 50% after 100 d of operation (<7200 BV). Both types of GAC showed similar adsorption capacities and only slight differences were found in terms of costs (2.4 €/kg vs 2.7 €/kg). However, CS-GAC has a lower carbon footprint than BC-GAC, mainly due to the more environmentally friendly production process of CS-GAC.

Depositional dynamics of a bituminous carbonate facies in a tectonically induced intra-platform basin: the Shibantan Member (Dengying Formation, Ediacaran Period)

The Ediacaran Shibantan Member (Dengying Formation, South China) is characterised by a black, laminated bituminous limestone facies with diverse Ediacara-type organisms and trace fossils. However, still little is known about the evolution of the Shibantan basin and its sedimentary dynamics. A detailed sedimentological characterisation revealed that the Shibantan Member was deposited on a carbonate ramp system linked to an intra-platform basin. Evaporitic dolomites of the Hamajing Member (representing sub- to supratidal inner ramp environments above fair weather wave base) are sharply overlain by black, laminated limestones of the lower Shibantan Member, representing a subtidal lower- to middle ramp environment close to the storm wave base. This facies-shift implies a sudden local deepening event, probably due to a tectonically induced increase in subsidence. The Shibantan basin was subsequently filled as evidenced by the gradual transition into dark wavy dolomites deposited in a subtidal middle-ramp environment (i.e. between storm- and fair weather wave bases) and, eventually, the upper Dengying Formation (i.e. the Baimatuo Member), which represents the same depositional environments as the Hamajing Member. Sedimentation in the Shibantan basin was highly dynamic as evidenced by a distinct slumping horizon and mass-flow deposits, partly possibly due to synsedimentary tectonic processes. A microbial mat associated biota which includes Ediacara-type fossils is restricted to the lower Shibantan Member. The close spatial relationship between allochthonous event deposits and autochthonous fossil associations in this setting implies that the event deposits were not only important for the preservation of fossils, but probably also for the supply of nutrients.

Hydrocarbon potential, thermal maturation of the Jurassic sequences, and the genetic implication for the oil seeps in North Thrust Zone, North Iraq

The organic geochemistry is studied for the rocks of three Jurassic formations: Sargelu, Naokelekan, and Chia Gara from the north of Iraq. These rocks comprise bituminous carbonate and shale rocks. The hydrocarbon source rock potential is evaluated by using total organic carbon (TOC) and Rock-Eval Pyrolysis. The prevalence of high values of TOC (2.21–45.12 wt.%) associated with moderate to high values of HI (225–550 mg HC/g TOC), low OI (1–33 CO2/g TOC), and high S2 values (4.53–181.0) indicate very good to excellent source rock potential for these rocks with mostly type II kerogen and few mixed-type II/III kerogen of oil prone source rocks. This is supported by high values of S2/S3 ratios (>5). Tmax values range from 440 to 447 °C in agreement with the calculated R o values (0.76–0.90) infer early to peak thermally mature stage. Based on the TOC and pyrolysis data, the rocks of the three formations have indigenous hydrocarbon mature oil prone. The geochemical investigation of biomarker parameters were performed for oil samples from two oil seepages (Banik and Tawke) which are located in the same area using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and stable carbon isotope measurements. The measured values of Pr/n-C17 for oil samples are low coupled with high values of Ph/n-C18 indicating marine organic matters with type II kerogen accumulated under marine reducing condition. The values and plots of δ13C (saturate and aromatic) also approve the prevalence of marine reducing condition. The source rocks for the oils of both seepages are interpreted to be carbonate rocks of Mesozoic age by the measured CV values which are 0.25. All these data are in consistent with marine carbonate source rocks for these oils. The paleoredox depositional environment for the source rocks is interpreted by the low value of Pr/Ph (0.74 in Banik) and high values of homohopane ratio C35S/C34S (1.21 in Banik and 1.13 in Tawke); the values of C29/C30 (norhopane/hopane >1) as well as the high sulfur content all indicate reducing condition during the deposition of the marine source rocks. The concentrations of C27, C28, and C29 reflect the prevalence of marine algal plankton organic matters. The measured Oleanane index equal zero which indicates age older than Lower Cretaceous for the source rocks. This documented by the calculated values of C28/C29 sterane ratio, and plots on Geomark Research database gives an age of Middle–Upper Jurassic for the source rocks. According to the characteristics of depositional environment of the source rocks, the paleoredox condition, and age estimation, the oils of Banik and Tawke could be derived from the rocks of Sargelu, Naokelekan, and Chia Gara Formations.

Geochemical analyses on bituminous carbonate reservoir in Alberta, Canada: focusing on the GC/GC-MS results of bitumen

The geochemical study on bituminous carbonate reservoir in Alberta has been performed to document the organic geochemical characteristics of the Grosmont Formation using two drilling cores (SAL 03-34 and SAL 08-01), especially focusing on the GC and GC-MS analyses. The results of GC and GC-MS analyses for the extracted organic matter (EOM) showed that all samples have been severely undergone a biodegradation process. However, the GC-MS data have displayed a little variation among the samples, which may be due to degree/type of biodegradation and the type of microbial activity. Triterpane biomarkers are present in low amounts, and steranes in even lesser amounts. Source and maturity assessments from both biomarkers are limited due to the lack of peaks by advanced biodegradation. The demethylated hopanes, which are typical of biodegraded oils, are not seen in these samples but they are apparently not unusual for the Athabasca tar sands, probably due to the specific type of post-emplacement microbial activity. Triterpanes biomarkers illustrate that a highly anoxic hypersaline source environment has contributed to the original oils, at the same time having anoxic marine carbonate/marl character. There is also tenuous evidence for a post-Triassic source according to the tricyclic terpane ratios. The steranes similarly indicate a marine, possibly carbonate-influenced source. Some of the aromatic compounds could also indicate a marine and anoxic hypersaline sourcing. The available peak ratios and patterns of EOM by GC-MS suggest high maturity, and aromatic parameters infer condensate window level with a vitrinite reflectance equivalent range of ∼0.9–1.2%. This could explain the remaining relatively light n-alkanes in the saturated GC chromatograms.

Role of acid blue 25 dye as active site for the adsorption of Cd2+ and Zn2+ using activated carbons

Abstract The adsorption of acid blue 25, Cd2+ and Zn2+ on a physically activated bituminous carbon and a phosphoric activated carbon from wood was studied using single and binary (dye/metal) solutions, at 30 °C and pH 5. Results showed a synergic effect of acid blue 25 in the adsorption of Cd+2 and Zn+2. Thus, the amount of metal ions adsorbed on both activated carbons increased with the initial concentration of acid blue 25. The effect was especially remarkable in the case of the adsorption of Zn2+ ions on the wood-based carbon. For this particular system, the metal uptake increased up to 60 times in presence of acid blue 25, when compared to the results obtained for the mono-component (Zn2+-only) solutions. Modeling of the adsorption results showed that a surface response methodology approach was required to attain an adequate description of the multi-component adsorption.

Effects of Foaming Condition on the Performance of Bituminous Coal-Derived Carbon Foams

carbon foams were prepared using a medium rank bituminous coal in this paper. The influence of foaming temperature, foaming pressure and time of releasing pressure on open porosity, bulk density and pore morphology of carbon foam were discussed, respectively. The bulk density and true density were tested. The texture of the carbon foams was characterized by scanning electron microscopy. The results show that the pores diameter of carbon foam derived from coal is more uniform, which is in range of 100μm-200μm. Nevertheless, there are a spot of irregular large holes. Foaming temperature is key fact and the suitable foaming temperature must be near to the maximum fluidity temperature of coal. With the foaming pressure increasing, the open porosity reduces, the bulk density increases and the pores diameter gets smaller and more regular.

Unconventional view of hydrocarbon prospecting in Israel and adjacent areas

Boris E. Khesin, Yevgeny A. Vapnik and Sonja E. Itkis, believe that the traditionally pessimistic view of potential hydrocarbon resources in Israel and Jordan should be revised in view of the results of new integrated geophysical studies suggesting promising targets for prospecting such as the methane-hydrates of the Eastern Mediterranean, bituminous carbonates, and gas deposits related to fossil mud volcano province of Israel and Jordan.

Ammonia-tailoring of GAC to enhance perchlorate removal. II: Perchlorate adsorption

Thermal tailoring of a bituminous granular activated carbon (GAC) by ammonia gas at 500–800 °C for 60 min achieved as much as 4-fold improvement in perchlorate adsorption as determined by rapid small-scale column tests (RSSCTs). When treating natural groundwater that contained 70–78 ppb perchlorate, the bed volumes to 4 ppb perchlorate breakthrough increased from 1100 bed volumes for commercial bituminous carbon up to 4400 bed volumes for carbon that was tailored in ammonia at 700 °C. Increased perchlorate adsorption corresponded to increased positive surface charges with R 2 0.956. The increase in positive surface charge was closely related to the increase in nitrogen content after ammonia tailoring. The ammonia-tailored activated carbons also exhibited a moderate increase in TOC removal and higher selectivity for erchlorate. The work herein interfaces with a companion paper by the same authors in which the ammonia-tailored carbon surfaces are characterized relative to physical–chemical features [1].

Evaluation of granular activated carbons for removal of methylisoborneol to below odor threshold concentration in drinking water

Four granular activated carbons manufactured from different raw materials were evaluated for the removal of 2-methylisoborneol (MIB) to below odor threshold concentration using equilibrium isotherm tests. MIB adsorption isotherms were compared in the aqueous equilibrium concentration range < 10–100 ng/l. The data showed that the bituminous carbon has the highest adsorption capacity, followed by the peat, lignite, and wood carbons. This is the first time GAC isotherm data are available at such low level; such data are needed to aid selection of the appropriate carbon product to remove this musty taste-and-odor (T&O) causing compound. The precision of the analytical method used in this study was evaluated by analyzing a spiked solution at 2 ng/l MIB, and was found to be 2 ± 1 ng/l. The absence of background competition in these organic pure water isotherms was verified. In natural water, however, competition from both nanogram- to microgram-per-liter of dissolved low molecular weight hydrophobic organic compounds (< 400 daltons) and milligram-per-liter of natural organic matter (> 400 daltons) contributed to changes in isotherms and to the reduction of MIB adsorption capacity. A database of organic pure water isotherms with MIB would be of important value to water facilities requiring T&O control as it provides a reliable starting point for GAC product selection. However, field or pilot tests are still needed for the final selection owing to the varying characteristics of individual water source.

DEPOSITIONAL MODELS AND RESERVOIR PROPERTIES OF MIOCENE REEFS, VISAYAN ISLANDS, PHILIPPINES

Recent commercial discoveries offshore Palawan have propelled the Philippines into the list of oil‐ and gas‐producing countries, and have focussed on the importance of Miocene reefs as reservoirs. This new situation has motivated the update of earlier depositional‐diagenetic models for the Miocene reefs in the Visayan Islands, which is presented in this paper. These reefs consisted of an association of corals, red algae, bryozoans, and encrusting foraminifers, which formed wave‐resistant, constructed, barrier‐and‐atoll systems along the edge of narrow shelves, with associated back‐reef patch reefs and frontal pinnacle reefs. The latter also grew on structural and depositional highs and plaforms among deeper water carbonate mudstones and shales.Reservoirs developed in all the various types of buildups by extensive burial dissolution, often preceded (with the exception of some pinnacle reefs) by subaerial exposure generating secondary porosity by vadose to phreatic undersaturated dissolution. Seals were generally provided by overlying basinal carbonate mudstones and shales, and by andesitic volcaniclastics and basaltic lava flows. Source beds were mature, basinal, bituminous carbonate mudstones and shales, and migration of hydrocarbons was mainly updip, complicated by local structural conditions.

Formation of pentafulvene in flash vacuum thermolysis of 5‐[7‐(2‐norbornenylidene)] meldrum's acid over bituminous carbon: Evidence for cyclopentadienylidene carbene

AbstractThe formation of pentafulvene (12)and benzene (11) upon flash vacuum thermolysis of 5‐[7‐(2‐norbornenylidene)] Meldrum's acid (9) over a hydrogen donating bituminous carbon matrix, provides the first experimental evidence for the occurrence of cyclopentadienylidene carbene (2) as a discrete species on the C6H4. energy surface.

Influence de la température sur le rendement des filtres au charbon activé biologique

To evaluate the performance of the biological activated carbon filters at the Sainte-Rose water treatment plant in Ville de Laval (Québec), water and carbon samples were taken over a period of 150 days. Sampling began 1 year after filter start-up. The filters were then in a pseudo-equilibrium state. During winter, the removal rate of organic material is reduced because of lower water temperatures which affect bacterial activity. Bacterial density in the upper layers of the filter is influenced by temperature variations. During the warm season, bacteria counts are higher in the upper layer of the carbon, in the filter effluent, and in the backwash water. For equal carbon masses, bituminous carbon and peat-based extruded carbon have similar removal rates. However, for equal volumes, bituminous carbon is more efficient. Key words: biological activated carbon, adsorption, filtration, drinking water, organic matter.

Tectonic History, Basin Evaluation, and Petroleum Geology of Upper Jurassic Facies of South Iraq: ABSTRACT

Callovian-Tithonian rocks of south Iraq are deposited of a major regressive sedimentary cycle. It began with the deposition of a basinal black bituminous shale and carbonates of the Naokelekan formation, which graded southwestwardly into a neritic, oolitic carbonate of the Najmah Formation and finally terminated by a lagoonal-supratidal dolomite and anhydrite of the Gotnia-Barsarin Formations. This sedimentary cycle is located on the same Tethyan shelf, at similar depth, deposited under the same paleoenvironments and is chronologically correlative with the Tuwaiq-Hith cycle of eastern Saudi Arabia. In the study area, drill-stem tests have proved the Najmah as an oil producer and the Gotnia as a cap rock and have pointed out the basinal black shales and carbonates of the Naokelekan and the underlying Bathonian Sargelu Formations as potential sources of hydrocarbons. In this study, the Upper Jurassic lithofacies have been, structurally, geothermally, and hydrodynamically mapped and evaluated for source, reservoir, and cap rock potentials. Patterns, styles, and histories of structural growth of structural anomalies have been evaluated and clustered into areas with identical structural style and growth history. Prospectivity was rated by projecting incipient structural growths, paleoextent of geothermal source rock maturation, and probably paleodirections of fluid migration on a seriesmore » of paleostructural maps which illustrates the evolution of these variables against a background of Upper Jurassic facies maps.« less

New Production Techniques for Alberta Oil Sands

Low world oil prices represent a serious threat to expanded commercial development of the Canadian oil sands in the near term, as they do to all of the higher cost alternatives to crude oil such as oil shales and coal liquefaction. Nonetheless, research and field testing of new technology for production of oil from oil sands are being pursued by industry and government in Alberta. New production technology is being developed in Canada to produce synthetic oil from the vast resources of bitumen trapped in the oil sands and bituminous carbonates of northern Alberta. This technology includes improved methods of mining, extraction, and upgrading of bitumen from near-surface deposits as well as new drilling and production techniques for thermal production of bitumen from the more deeply buried reservoirs. Of particular interest are the cluster drilling methods designed to reduce surface disturbance and the techniques for horizontal drilling of wells from underground tunnels to increase the contact of injection fluids with the reservoir.

Graphite in Precambrian rocks of Southern Africa: implications on the carbon content of metamorphic rocks

Data on the occurrence of graphite and other highly reconstituted carbonaceous matter as potential traces of carbon originally derived from organic matter are compiled from Precambrian rocks of Namibia, Botswana, South Africa, and Zimbabwe. While carbonaceous matter occurs in sediments throughout Precambrian sequences of the area, graphite occurrences appear to be concentrated in high-grade metamorphic rocks of the Early Archaean Beithridge Complex of the Limpopo metamorphic belt and the late Precambrian Damara Supergroup of Namibia. The original sediments were mostly carbonaceous shales and rarely bituminous carbonates. The data compiled show that metamorphic rocks can contain appreciable amounts of carbon that cannot be disregarded in any calculation of carbon cycles. Previous estimates, weighted in favour of gneisses, give an average content of 200 ppm C org for metamorphic rocks, i.e., the same as for igneous rocks. The inclusion of sediments of lower metamorphic grades in the calculation raises the mean to 0.054% C org in metamorphic rocks. This results in a total of 6.75 × 10 21 mg C org in the metamorphic portion of the crust, or ∼ 33% of the total C org contained in the crust. This is a proportion which suggests a need for a revision of the presently accepted balance calculations of the interconnected carbon and oxygen cycles.

Zechstein Salt Denmark. Salt Research Project EFP-81. Volume II: Stratigraphy

In the Danish part of the Norwegian-Danish Basin 4 cycles of Zechstein evaporites are described. The oldest cycle Z1 is composed of bituminous shale, carbonates, anhydrite, rock salt and, in one well, a potassium mineralization. The older cycle Z2 is composed of bituminous shale, carbonate, anhydrite, rock salt and magnesium - potassium minerals. These latter minerals make up the Veggerby zone, which resembles the German Floz Stassfurt. The younger cycle Z3 is composed of shale, fine sand, subordinate anhydrite and reddish coloured rock salts with two minor potassium mineralizations. The youngest cycle Z4 is composed of shaly sands, subordinate anhydrite and rock salt. No younger cycles are observed. The depositional history of the Danish Zechstein evaporites is given. A strong subsidence of the Norwegian-Danish Basin was initiated at the end of the Rotliegendes and the beginning of the Zechstein. During Zechstein the basin was filled with relatively deep sea sedimentated evaporites in Z1 and in the major part of Z2. From the termination of Z2 to the end of Z4 shallow sea sediments were the dominating type. In connection with the general description is given an outline of the movements of the salt with pillow stage in Late Bunter and with the diapiric movements from Jurassic to recently. Cap rocks are shortly discussed. A summary of the drilling practise is given. The economic geology in relation to the Zechstein is discussed with respect to hydrocarbons, potash and different uses of rock salt.