Bite Of Aedes Mosquitoes Research Articles

Entomological assessment of hessian fabric transfluthrin vapour emanators as a means to protect against outdoor-biting Aedes after providing them to households for routine use in Port-au-Prince, Haiti.

A simple treated fabric device for passively emanating the volatile pyrethroid transfluthrin was recently developed in Tanzania that protected against nocturnal Anopheles and Culex mosquitoes for several months. Here these transfluthrin emanators were assessed in Port-au-Prince, Haiti against outdoor-biting Aedes. Transfluthrin emanators were distributed to participating households in poor-to-middle class urban neighbourhoods and evaluated once every two months in terms of their effects on human landing rates of wild Aedes populations. A series of three such entomological assessment experiments were conducted, to examine the influence of changing weather conditions, various transfluthrin formulations and emanator placement on protective efficacy measurements. Laboratory experiments assessed resistance of local Aedes aegypti to transfluthrin and deltamethrin, and the irritancy and repellency of the transfluthrin-treated fabric used in the field. Across all three entomological field assessments, little evidence of protection against wild Ae. aegypti was observed, regardless of weather conditions, transfluthrin formulation or emanator placement: A generalized linear mixed model fitted to the pooled data from all three assessment rounds (921 females caught over 5129 hours) estimated a relative landing rate [95% Confidence interval] of 0.87 [0.73, 1.04] for users of treated versus untreated emanators (P = 0.1241). Wild Ae. aegypti in this setting were clearly resistant to transfluthrin when compared to a fully susceptible colony. Transfluthrin emanators had little if any apparent effect upon Aedes landing rates by wild Ae. aegypti in urban Haiti, and similar results have been obtained by comparable studies in Tanzania, Brazil and Peru. In stark contrast, however, parallel sociological assessments of perspectives among these same end-users in urban Haitian communities indicate strong satisfaction in terms of perceived protection against mosquitoes. It remains unclear why the results obtained from these complementary entomological and sociological assessments in Haiti differ so much, as do those from a similar set of studies in Brazil. It is encouraging, however, that similar contrasts between the entomological and epidemiological results of a recent large-scale assessment of another transfluthrin emanator product in Peru, which indicate they provide useful protection against Aedes-borne arboviral infections, despite apparently providing only modest protection against Aedes mosquito bites.

A REVIEW OF DENGUE VIRUS GENOME, STRUCTURAL AND NON-STRUCTURAL PROTEINS, AND LIFE CYCLE

The dengue virus-infected Aedes mosquito bites that cause dengue fever and propagate the potentially fatal disease. Dengue virus infection poses a risk to over 3.9 billion individuals worldwide. Its widespread incidence is currently a significant health issue. A pathogenic creature with a unique nucleotide sequence in its genome provides instructions for RNA or DNA synthesis, and protein expression, also for the organism’s survival and evolution. New species or strains that are potentially more virulent than their parent strains can emerge as a result of mutations or changes in the nucleotide sequence. In this review, we have discussed the structural organization, genome, proteins, and life cycle of dengue virus. We describe in detail the structural and non-structural proteins and their functions. We describe the organization of viral RNA; it consists of one open reading frame (encodes a single polyprotein), 5’ UTRs with 5’ capping, and 3’ UTR without poly ‘A’ tail. We have described in detail the life cycle of the dengue virus. This will aid in a better understanding of dengue virus organization, and life cycle. Keywords: Dengue virus, genomics, proteomics, structural proteins, non-structural proteins,

A REVIEW OF DENGUE VIRUS GENOME, STRUCTURAL AND NON-STRUCTURAL PROTEINS, AND LIFE CYCLE

The dengue virus-infected Aedes mosquito bites that cause dengue fever and propagate the potentially fatal disease. Dengue virus infection poses a risk to over 3.9 billion individuals worldwide. Its widespread incidence is currently a significant health issue. A pathogenic creature with a unique nucleotide sequence in its genome provides instructions for RNA or DNA synthesis, and protein expression, also for the organism‟s survival and evolution. New species or strains that are potentially more virulent than their parent strains can emerge as a result of mutations or changes in the nucleotide sequence. In this review, we have discussed the structural organization, genome, proteins, and life cycle of dengue virus. We describe in detail the structural and non-structural proteins and their functions. We describe the organization of viral RNA; it consists of one open reading frame (encodes a single polyprotein), 5‟ UTRs with 5‟ capping, and 3‟ UTR without poly „A‟ tail. We have described in detail the life cycle of the dengue virus. This will aid in a better understanding of dengue virus organization, and life cycle.

Determinants of exposure to Aedes mosquitoes: A comprehensive geospatial analysis in peri-urban Cambodia

Aedes mosquitoes are some of the most important and globally expansive vectors of disease. Public health efforts are largely focused on prevention of human-vector contact. A range of entomological indices are used to measure risk of disease, though with conflicting results (i.e. larval or adult abundance does not always predict risk of disease). There is a growing interest in the development and use of biomarkers for exposure to mosquito saliva, including for Aedes spp, as a proxy for disease risk. In this study, we conduct a comprehensive geostatistical analysis of exposure to Aedes mosquito bites among a pediatric cohort in a peri‑urban setting endemic to dengue, Zika, and chikungunya viruses. We use demographic, household, and environmental variables (the flooding index (NFI), land type, and proximity to a river) in a Bayesian geostatistical model to predict areas of exposure to Aedes aegypti bites. We found that hotspots of exposure to Ae. aegypti salivary gland extract (SGE) were relatively small (< 500 m and sometimes < 250 m) and stable across the two-year study period. Age was negatively associated with antibody responses to Ae. aegypti SGE. Those living in agricultural settings had lower antibody responses than those living in urban settings, whereas those living near recent surface water accumulation were more likely to have higher antibody responses. Finally, we incorporated measures of larval and adult density in our geostatistical models and found that they did not show associations with antibody responses to Ae. aegypti SGE after controlling for other covariates in the model. Our results indicate that targeted house- or neighborhood-focused interventions may be appropriate for vector control in this setting. Further, demographic and environmental factors more capably predicted exposure to Ae. aegypti mosquitoes than commonly used entomological indices.

Dynamic behavior of a reaction-diffusion dengue model with spatial heterogeneity

Dengue is one of the most prevalent vector-borne viral diseases, which is transmitted through the bite of Aedes mosquitoes (Aedes albopictus). In this study, using the global exponential attraction theory, the dynamic behavior of the dengue model in a spatially heterogeneous environment was studied. The existence and uniqueness of positive global solutions were proven using the semigroup theory. The basic reproduction number was defined using the spectral radius of the next-generation operator. Furthermore, a global exponential attractor set was given, and the results of globally asymptotically stable and disease uniform persistence were obtained for the dengue model. A numerical simulation showed the dynamic behavior and revealed that increasing the diffusion coefficient and spatial heterogeneity rate is beneficial for disease control.

Reduction in Anti-Dengue Virus IgG Antibody Levels with the Use of a Larvicide for Vector Control in Rural Lao People's Democratic Republic.

The Lao People's Democratic Republic is an endemic area of dengue, with cases reported in urban and rural areas every year. In this study, we indirectly evaluated the efficacy of a larvicide (SumiLarvTM 2MR discs) that was used for vector control against Aedes mosquitoes. Villages in a rural area of Lao PDR were selected as study areas, non-intervention and intervention villages. At the intervention village, the larvicide was used to treat refillable water containers for 27 months (October 2017 to February 2020), while at the non-intervention villages were no treatment. The serum samples of villagers from both villages were randomized to collect in the pre-intervention and in post-intervention periods. An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was used to examine anti-dengue virus (DENV) IgG antibody levels in serum samples. Recombinant DENV serotype 2 non-structural protein1 was used as an antigen for the ELISA, the optical density (OD) values were analyzed for comparison. The results showed that the OD values decreased significantly (p &lt; 0.01) between the pre-intervention and post-intervention periods at the intervention site. The treatment of water storage containers in rural areas with SumiLarvTM 2MR discs may help to protect residents from Aedes mosquito bites, and hence, reduce DENV infections.

Dengue 2021: Trend and Infection rate in Teaching Hospitals of Rawalpindi

Dengue is a viral infection that is transmitted to human through bite of Aedes mosquito which in turn incorporates dengue virus in human blood. Objectives: To determine the trend of dengue cases reporting in Teaching hospitals of Rawalpindi during 2021 and dengue infectivity rate. Methods: A cross-sectional descriptive study was done in teaching hospitals (Holy Family Hospital, Benazir Bhutto Hospital and District Head Quarters Hospital) affiliated with Rawalpindi Medical University during September and October 2021 to study the trend of dengue cases and infection rate. The data were gathered with permission of Medical Superintendent working in each of the 3 hospitals pertinent to the number of patients visiting Infectious Diseases OPD, patients admitted and verified as dengue positive on lab investigations. Data were analyzed by means of Microsoft Excel 2010. Results: About 1509 patients visiting Dengue OPD during September 2021 while 9765 patients visited during October 2021. Dengue infection rate among patients attended and being managed in three public sector tertiary care hospitals was 21.6% and 13.6% during September and October 2021 respectively. Conclusion: Dengue infection rate indicates the need to strategize for regional curtailment of this disease

Effect of School-Based Educational Interventions on the Knowledge of Malaria and Dengue Among Higher Secondary School Children in Chennai, India: A Pre and Post-intervention Study.

Introduction: School children are a means to reach and sensitize the community on the prevention of seasonal diseases such as malaria and dengue. The current study aims to determine the impact of school-based educational interventions on the knowledge of students toward the prevention and control of malaria and dengue in higher secondary schools.Methods: This pre- and post-intervention study was conducted in three higher secondary schools in Zone IV, North Chennai, from September to December 2021. A total of 284 students in the age group of 13-17 years participated in the study. School-based educational interventions were delivered through PowerPoint-assisted lectures, participatory group activities, and demonstration of mosquito larvae and their control. The impact of the interventions as the change in knowledge level was analyzed using McNemar’s test, with a p-value of <0.05.Results: Educational interventions led to the improvement in knowledge about malaria symptoms, such as fever (43.7% to 76.1%; p<0.001), chills (45.1% to 82.4%; p<0.001), and headache (46.1% to 86.6%; p<0.001), and the knowledge of Aedes mosquito bites as the cause of dengue transmission enhanced (41.9% to 92.2%; p<0.001). Similarly, there was an increase in knowledge on the identification of vector mosquito breeding sites inside the house (11.9% to 67.9%; p<0.001) and outside the house (10.9% to 69.7%; p<0.001) and mosquito net usage (21.5% to 76.1%; p<0.001) after the interventions.Conclusion: School-based educational interventions had a significant impact on enhancing the knowledge on the prevention and control of malaria and dengue among school children. Involving school children can strengthen existing malaria and dengue prevention and control strategies in endemic areas.

Recombination, and Then What? How Zika Virus Hybrids Improve Their Fitness

Zika virus (ZIKV) is an emerging flavivirus primarily transmitted through the bite of Aedesmosquitoes. It spread explosively around the tropics in the 21st century, and still presents a threat to human health. There is a need to better understand the drivers of emergence of ZIKV and likely consequences of its future evolution. RNA recombination is a process of genetic exchange which occurs in positive-sense RNA viruses and contributes to virus evolution. We have developed a recombinant-specific PCR assay for detection of ZIKV recombinants in mammalian and insect cell co-infections. Using this system, we demonstrated the ability of distinct geographic and genetic isolates to recombine and tested their viability in tissue culture. Initial ZIKV recombinants produce plaques with a significantly smaller diameter than either parental strain. Recombinant large-plaque variants were isolated through serial passage and plaque purification, and the genome analysed for adaptive mutations. A single nucleotide coding mutation in NS1 was detected in several independent large-plaque variants. The role of this mutation in virus replication was investigated through reverse genetics to assess whether it gave the recombinant a replicative advantage. Understanding the genetic changes that arise during, and following recombination is important in the context of virus evolution. It is particularly relevant for ZIKV, as co-circulation of the African and Asian strains of ZIKV in nature has already occurred in parts of Latin America and Africa. Current and future studies will focus on the phenotype of recombinant ZIKV, their replication in mammalian and insect cell lines, and in mosquitoes.

Genome-Wide Approaches to Unravel the Host Factors Involved in Chikungunya Virus Replication.

Chikungunya virus (CHIKV), the causative agent of Chikungunya fever (CHIKVF) that is often characterized by fever, headache, rash, and arthralgia, is transmitted to humans by Aedes mosquito bites. Although the mortality rate associated with CHIKV infection is not very high, CHIKVF has been confirmed in more than 40 countries, not only in tropical but also in temperate areas. Therefore, CHIKV is a growing major threat to the public health of the world. However, a specific drug is not available for CHIKV infection. As demonstrated by many studies, the processes completing the replication of CHIKV are assisted by many host factors, whereas it has become clear that the host cell possesses some factors limiting the virus replication. This evidence will provide us with an important clue for the development of pharmacological treatment against CHIKVF. In this review, we briefly summarize cellular molecules participating in the CHIKV infection, particularly focusing on introducing recent genome-wide screen studies that enabled illuminating the virus-host interactions.

Numerical study of Zika model as a mosquito-borne virus with non-singular fractional derivative

Zika virus infection, which is closely related to dengue, is becoming a global threat to human society. The transmission of the Zika virus from one human to another is spread by bites of Aedes mosquitoes. Recent studies also reveal the fact that the Zika virus can be transmitted by sexual interaction. In this paper, we use the fractional derivative with Mittag–Leffler non-singular kernel to study Zika virus transmission dynamics. This fractional is also known as the Atangana–Baleanu Caputo (ABC) derivative which is employed for the resulting system of ordinary differential equations. We investigate the proposed Zika virus model by using the Legendre spectral method. The model parameters are estimated and validated numerically by investigating the effect of fractional order exponent on various cases such as Susceptible human, infected human, asymptomatic carrier, exposed human, and recovered human. Numerical results obtained with the proposed method have been compared with exact solutions, showing in all parameters a very satisfactory agreement.

NURSING CARE FOR CLIENTS OF DENGUE HEMORRHAGIC FEVER (STUDY OF LITERATURE)

Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever (DHF) is an acute infection caused by orbovirus (Arthopodbron virus) and is transmitted through Aedes mosquito bites (Aedes albopictus dan Aedes aegypti). Until now, 4 types of dengue virus were introduced that can cause dengue fever and dengue fever. Regarding the occurrence of dengue fever can be stated as follows. After the dengue virus enters the human body through the bite of the Aedes mosquito the patient's body forms immunity to the disease if the patient is attacked for the second or more times the type of virus is different, it will cause an immunological reaction in the body (Ngastiyah, 2015). The methodology in writing scientific papers uses a literature study with four clients in the scientific papers of the D3 Nursing study program at the Faculty of Health, Unipdu, Jombang in 2014-2018 with the same title, namely nursing care for clients of dengue fever. The results of the implementation of nursing care in four clients with dengue hemoragic fever (DHF), obtained all four clients experience the disease (DHF) with a diagnosis of hyperthermia. Nursing actions made can be carried out well because of the support of all health workers, clients and families and hospital infrastructure but cannot be carried out in a row.

Forecasting prevalence of dengue hemorrhagic fever using ARIMA model in Sulawesi Tenggara Province, Indonesia

Background: Dengue hemorrhagic fever occurs through the bite of Aedes mosquitoes, primarily Aedes aegypti, carrying dengue viruses. In recent decades, the risk increased dramatically, not only in the tropics but also in subtropical regions.Objective: This study aimed to determine the best model for forecasting dengue hemorrhagic fever prevalence in Sulawesi Tenggara, Indonesia.Method: This was a retrospective analytical study using secondary data from the Sulawesi Tenggara Provincial Health Office from 2014 to 2019. ARIMA model was used for data analysis.Results: ARIMA (0.1.1)(0.1.1)4 was selected as the best-suited model. Based on the forecast, there would be an increase in dengue hemorrhagic fever prevalence over the next two years, with a mean absolute percentage error value of 4.41%.Conclusion: Forecasting results indicated that the peaks of dengue hemorrhagic fever cases would be in March, July, and November, and the increase will occur in the same months each year. Also, forecasting results were very good. Public health practitioners can use this model to prevent and eradicate dengue hemorrhagic fever. The ARIMA model would also be useful for nursing practice in caring for patients with dengue fever in the future.

Serological biomarker for assessing human exposure to Aedes mosquito bites during a randomized vector control intervention trial in northeastern Thailand.

BackgroundAedes mosquitoes are vectors for several major arboviruses of public health concern including dengue viruses. The relationships between Aedes infestation and disease transmission are complex wherein the epidemiological dynamics can be difficult to discern because of a lack of robust and sensitive indicators for predicting transmission risk. This study investigates the use of anti-Aedes saliva antibodies as a serological biomarker for Aedes mosquito bites to assess small scale variations in adult Aedes density and dengue virus (DENV) transmission risk in northeastern Thailand. Individual characteristics, behaviors/occupation and socio-demographics, climatic and epidemiological risk factors associated with human-mosquito exposure are also addressed.MethodsThe study was conducted within a randomized clustered control trial in Roi Et and Khon Kaen provinces over a consecutive 19 months period. Thirty-six (36) clusters were selected, each of ten houses. Serological and entomological surveys were conducted in all houses every four months and monthly in three sentinel households per cluster between September 2017 and April 2019 for blood spot collections and recording concurrent immature and adult Aedes indices. Additionally, the human exposure to Aedes mosquito bites (i.e., Mosquito Exposure Index or MEI) was estimated by ELISA measuring levels of human antibody response to the specific Nterm-34 kDa salivary antigen. The relationships between the MEI, vector infestation indices (adult and immature stages) and vector DENV infection were evaluated using a two-level (house and individual levels) mixed model analysis with one-month lag autoregressive correlation.ResultsThere was a strong positive relationship between the MEI and adult Aedes (indoor and outdoor) density. Individuals from households with a medium mosquito density (mean difference: 0.091, p<0.001) and households with a high mosquito density (mean difference: 0.131, p<0.001) had higher MEI’s compared to individuals from households without Aedes. On a similar trend, individuals from households with a low, medium or high indoor Aedes densities (mean difference: 0.021, p<0.007, 0.053, p<0.0001 and 0.037, p<0.0001 for low, medium and high levels of infestation, respectively) had higher MEI than individuals from houses without indoor Aedes. The MEI was driven by individual characteristics, such as gender, age and occupation/behaviors, and varied according to climatic, seasonal factors and vector control intervention (p<0.05). Nevertheless, the study did not demonstrate a clear correlation between MEI and the presence of DENV-infected Aedes.ConclusionThis study represents an important step toward the validation of the specific IgG response to the Aedes salivary peptide Nterm-34kDa as a proxy measure for Aedes infestation levels and human-mosquito exposure risk in a dengue endemic setting. The use of the IgG response to the Nterm-34 kDa peptide as a viable diagnostic tool for estimating dengue transmission requires further investigations and validation in other geographical and transmission settings.

Intrauterine Zika virus infection: review of the current findings with emphasis in the prenatal and postnatal brain imaging diagnostic methods

Zika virus (ZIKV) is a widespread flavivirus transmitted to humans through the bite of Aedes mosquitoes. The number of ZIKV cases increased significantly between 2015 and 2016, and Brazil was the first to report autochthonous transmission of infection. The main neurological disorder related to ZIKV infection is microcephaly. Fetal magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is the gold standard examination for the analysis of fetal brain infection, followed by obstetric ultrasonography. Cerebral atrophy, intracranial calcifications, ventriculomegaly, cerebellar, and brain gyrus abnormalities are some of the most common findings. Postnatal MRI shows high sensitivity and specificity. Corpus callosum abnormalities, cerebellar hypoplasia, and choroid plexus dilation can be also observed. We present a review of congenital ZIKV infection with emphasis on pre and postnatal brain findings using ultrasonography, MRI, computed tomography, and three-dimensional reconstruction models.

Community awareness and experiences of health workers concerning mosquito-borne viral diseases in selected districts of Gambella Region, Southwestern Ethiopia

ABSTRACT In this study, we assessed community awareness and experiences of health workers about mosquito-borne viral diseases in selected districts of the Gambella Region, South Western Ethiopia. A community and health facility-based qualitative study involving 11 focus group discussions (FGDs) with community dmembers and two FGDs with health workers was conducted between November 2017 to January 2018. A total of 122 community members and 16 health workers participated in the study. All the discussants mentioned malaria, typhoid fever, unknown causes of diarrhea and skin diseases as the major public health problems in the area. Using pictures of Anopheles and Aedes mosquitoes, participants confirmed that both mosquitoes are present in the area. They identified Anopheles as the vector of malaria. However, community discussants could not mention the name of a disease that can be transmitted by Aedes mosquito though they mentioned that Aedes mosquito bites both humans and animals during the day time in forest areas and causes skin itching to humans. Meanwhile, community participants from Pakag, a village bordering South Sudan, expressed concern that Aedes mosquito can cause a malaria-like disease which can kill within a few days. Health workers from Itang health center described that in 2016, an outbreak of an unknown disease that causes fever and jaundice occurred and killed seven individuals in a village called Akula, which is closer to a South Sudan refugee camp. Overall, the findings showed that community members and health workers in the area do not have adequate information on mosquito-borne viral diseases. Creating awareness, improving laboratory services and further epidemiological studies would be important for early warning and preparedness for outbreaks in the area.

Susceptibility of Armigeres subalbatus Coquillett (Diptera: Culicidae) to Zika virus through oral and urine infection.

BackgroundZika virus (ZIKV) disease outbreaks have been occurring in South America since 2015, and has spread to North America. Because birth defects and cases of Guillain Barré have been associated with infection with ZIKV, this has drawn global attention. ZIKV is generally considered an Aedes-transmitted pathogen. The transmission of ZIKV through blood by Aedes mosquito bites has been recognized as the major transmission route. However, it is not clear whether there are other transmission routes that can cause viral infection in mosquitos. The aim of the present study is to describe the susceptibility of Armigeres subalbatus, which often develop in human waste lagoons, to ZIKV, through oral infection in adult mosquitoes and urine infection in larvae.Methodology/Principal findingsFive-day-old female Ar. subalbatus ingested infectious blood meals containing ZIKV. After 4, 7, and 10 days of ingesting infectious blood meals, ZIKV could be detected in the midguts, salivary glands, ovaries, and collected saliva of mosquitoes. The ZIKV infection rate (IR) on day 10 reached 40% in salivary glands and 13% in saliva, indicating that these mosquitoes were able to transmit ZIKV. In addition, ZIKV infection was also discovered in mosquito ovaries, suggesting the possibility of vertical transmission of virus. Moreover, Ar. subalbatus transmitted ZIKV to infant mice bitten by infectious mosquitoes. In a second experiment, 1st-instar larvae of Ar. subalbatus were reared in water containing ZIKV and human urine. After pupation, pupae were placed in clean water and transferred to a mosquito cage for emergence. Although ZIKV RNA was detected in all of the larvae tested, ZIKV was not detected in the saliva of any adult Ar. subalbatus. Considering that there are more uncontrollable factors in nature than in the laboratory environment, the possibility that the virus is transmitted to adult mosquitoes via larvae is very small period.Conclusions/SignificanceAdult Ar. subalbatus could be infected with ZIKV and transmit ZIKV through mosquito bites. Therefore, in many rural areas in China and in undeveloped areas of other Asian countries, the management of human waste lagoons in the prevention and control of Zika disease should be considered. Corresponding adjustments and modifications should also be made in prevention and control strategies against ZIKV.

Spatial Assessment of Contact Between Humans and Anopheles and Aedes Mosquitoes in a Medium-Sized African Urban Setting, Using Salivary Antibody-Based Biomarkers.

Anarchic and poorly controlled urbanization led to an increased risk of mosquito-borne diseases (MBD) in many African cities. Here, we evaluate the spatial heterogeneity of human exposure to malaria and arboviral disease vectors in an urban area of northern Senegal, using antibody-based biomarkers of exposure to Anopheles and Aedes mosquito bites. A cross-sectional study was undertaken during the rainy season of 2014 in 4 neighborhoods of Saint-Louis, a city in northern Senegal. Among children aged 6-59 months in each neighborhood, the dried blood spot technique was used to evaluate immunoglobulin G (IgG) responses to both gSG6-P1 (Anopheles) and Nterm-34-kDa (Aedes) salivary peptides as validated biomarkers of respective mosquito bite exposure. IgG response levels to gSG6-P1 and Nterm-34-kDa salivary peptides varied significantly between the 4 neighborhoods (P < .0001). The level of exposure to Aedes bites also varied according to household access to sanitation services (P = .027), whereas that of exposure to Anopheles bites varied according to insecticide-treated bed net use (P = .006). In addition, spatial clusters of high contact between humans and mosquitoes were identified inside 3 neighborhoods. Antibody-based biomarkers of exposure to Anopheles and Aedes mosquito bites could be helpful tools for evaluating the heterogeneity of exposure to malaria and arboviral disease vectors by national control programs.

An update on the aspects of Zika virus infection on male reproductive system.

Zika virus (ZIKV) is mainly transmitted through Aedes mosquito bites, but sexual and post-transfusion transmissions have been reported. During acute infection, ZIKV is detectable in most organs and body fluids including human semen. Although it is not currently epidemic, there is a concern that the virus can still reemerge since the male genital tract might harbor persistent reservoirs that could facilitate viral transmission over extended periods, raising concerns among public health and assisted reproductive technologies(ART) experts and professionals. So far, the consensus is that ZIKV infection in the testes or epididymis might affect sperm development and, consequently, male fertility. Still, diagnostic tests have not yet been adapted to resource-restricted countries. This manuscript provides an updated overview of the cellular and molecular mechanisms of ZIKV infection and reviews data on ZIKV persistence in semen and associated risks to the male reproductive system described in human and animal models studies. We provide an updated summary of the impact of the recent ZIKV outbreak on human-ART, weighing on current recommendations and diagnostic approaches, both available and prospective, with special emphasis on mass spectrometry-based biomarker discovery. In the light of the identified gaps in our accumulated knowledge on the subject, we highlight the importance for couples seeking ART to follow the constantly revised guidelines and the need of specific ZIKV diagnosis tools for semen screening to contain ZIKV virus spread and make ART safer.

In silico T-cell and B-cell Epitope Based Vaccine Design Against Alphavirus Strain of Chikungunya.

Chikungunya an arbovirus, is transmitted to humans by the bite of Aedes mosquito. The virus occurrences have been reported in Southeast Asian countries including Pakistan. Its symptoms include typical febrile illness and arthralgic syndrome. The virus has not decisively proved to be life-threatening. The attempt was to design T-cell and B-cell epitope-based vaccine for Chikungunya. The proteome of chikungunya was retrieved, antigenic proteins were identified and T-cell epitopes and B-cell epitopes were predicted. Interacting HLA alleles were also identified. The final analysis was done to confirm that predicted T-cell epitopes and B-cell epitopes can be used as a vaccine. About 32 T-cell epitopes and a 10mer B-cell epitope were identified. Both T-cell and Bcell epitopes demonstrated strong interactions with HLA alleles. The predicted T-cell and B-cell epitopes were docked with respective HLA alleles. The docking analysis showed that the predicted respective epitopes best fit into the binding pockets of the alleles. On the basis of this computational analysis, it is suggested that these predicted epitopes can be used as a remedy against Alphavirus strain of chikungunya. Further laboratory experiments can be conducted to determine the efficacy and stability of this work.