End Of Bipolarity Research Articles

Constructing Turkish Foreign Policy: From the “Grand Strategy” to the “Strategic Depth”

The Grand Strategy in the conventional Turkish foreign policy has been built on the defensive, secularism/security-based, pro-status quo and Western-oriented pillars while rejecting the Ottoman legacy since 1923. The Kemalist elite holding power in many institutions defined Turkey’s place strictly in the Western bloc in line with their identity, ideology, and quest to modernize and industrialise the country during the Cold War. However, from the 1980s onwards, several dynamics have opened new windows for change in both domestic and international politics including economic liberalisation, end of global bipolarity, new governmental initiatives abroad, de-securitization, democratization, and Europeanization. The JDP (Justice and Development Party) came to power in 2002, set a new orientation, goals, priorities, and tools for foreign policy within the guideline of the Strategic Depth Doctrine. An identity and ideology-driven, Middle Eastern-oriented, and pro-active foreign policy fuelling from the aspirations to utilize the Ottoman legacy to make Turkey a leading geopolitical actor in regional and global affairs was pursued until the collapse of the vision with the 2011 Arab Spring. In this article, firstly the characteristics of the conventional Turkish foreign policy and the factors that have constructed it, then the transition period, and finally the radical shift in JDP’s first decade will be critically assessed.

Effect of cylindrical heat pipes on electrochemical hydrogen adsorption within a carbon electrode employed in a modified reversible PEM fuel cell

The presented work is a maiden experimental attempt on thermal management of a modified reversible polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell (MRPEMFC) using a passive cooling approach to enhance the hydrogen (H)-adsorption capacity of an integrated activated carbon (aC) electrode. In the current study, cylindrical heat pipes (CHPs) are installed on the hydrogen side (H-side) and oxygen side (O-side) bi-polar end plates (BEPs) of the developed cell to maintain a temperature within tolerable limits during the charging operation. The noteworthy achievement with the integration of a CHP on the H-side of the MRPEMFC is a 12 °C reduction in the operating temperature. While, the highest obtained gravimetric H-storage density is recorded 1.52 wt percent (wt%) with the integration of CHPs on H- and O-side BEPs, which is 40% higher than without CHPs. Furthermore, CHPs assisted-MPEMFC is able to supply 0.4 mA constant current for the first 3 min during the discharging operation.

Canine hepatic calodiosis with cirrhosis.

The nematode parasite Calodium hepaticum (Capillaria hepatica) has a global distribution and is commonly reported in rodents (definitive host), dogs, cats and wild animals. Humans especially children are more susceptible to the parasitic infection. This paper documents an incidental finding of hepatic calodiosis with cirrhosis in a stray dog and discusses the zoonotic implications. A non descript dog was brought for necropsy examination to the Department of Veterinary Pathology, Madras Veterinary College, Tamil Nadu, India. Liver appeared dark brown, mottled with multifocal random variably sized, grey white flat firm areas. Histopathologically, liver tissue revealed multiple random encysted large collection of eggs surrounded by mild inflammation with a few lymphocytes, macrophages and fine fibrosis. The eggs had characteristic barrel shape, bipolar ends, bilayered wall, cross striations between the walls, and yolk. Periodic acid Schiff stain demonstrated the glycolic wall of ova. Marked portal to portal fibrosis was demonstrated by Masson's trichrome (for collagen) and by Warthin-Starry (for reticulin) stains. The stage of parasitic infection was diagnosed as intermediate to chronic due to fibrosis. A need to study the prevalence of the disease in rodents, human and animals is emphasized. Improper burial of carcasses of rodents and dogs may contribute to spread of infection. Pets and stray animals may transmit infection to human and pose health risk.

THE BALKANS IN A MULTIPOLAR WORLD - PERSPECTIVES AND CHALLENGES

The international relations of the 20th century were largely characterized by the balance of power, and it could be said, a balance of fear, of two opposing alliances. Precisely these two centers of power ,the USA and the USSR led to division within the system of the entire international community. However, the breakup of the USSR, the emergence of new states, the end of the Cold War also led to the end of bipolarity and the emergence of unipolar world. The only remaining hegemon the USA ,using all its available resources as well as the resources of their “followers” disrupted the system of power balance in their favor. That disruption of the power balance system was most bloodily manifested in the Balkans as part of the European continent and a kind of connection between worlds. Regardless of the large resources available, both the “ hard” and the “soft” powers, the USA could not completely bring the Balkans under their control. Changes in the international relations we live in, question the current order based on globalization and one hegemon. However, this very hegemon, using all resources selflessly, is trying to preserve its order by enabling itself and its followers to play the role of “ the master of the world” and assigning itself eternal world policeman role. Throughout the globe, questions are being raised about the value of global order and the USA’s power as the sole global power. By shifting the economic flows to the East, e.i. to the Asia-Pacific part of the world, Western hegemons are slowly becoming naked in their imperialistic interests. Re-questioning the power of the “world policeman” is reflected on those parts of the world that are at the junction of “different worlds”. One such part of the world is certainly the Balkans. Therefore, the theme and the aim of this paper is to point out the importance of the Balkans in terms of power projection of key global and regional factors of international relations at the begin- ning of the new millennium. By analyzing influences of global and regional factors of international relations, it can be stated that peoples on the Balkans already live in a multipolar world, which is characterized by great instability due to undefined zones of influence of global and regional players. Defining those areas of interest becomes an imperative for the human civilization survival.

A Defence of the Relevance of Neorealism in the Post-Bipolar World

This article evaluates the validity of neorealism in explaining contemporary international events. It is argued that three decades since the end of bipolarity and despite the neoliberal challenge, neorealism still provides convincing explanations of world politics. Within this context the basic theoretical precepts of Kenneth Waltz's neorealism are presented before moving on to outline the main aspects of the neoliberal challenge since the end of the Cold War. Then the response of structural realism is evaluated. Finally, through an analysis of recent normative and empirical discourses, this article reaffirms structural realism's credibility as a theory of international relations.

International Relations in the Great Indian Ocean through the Prism of Geopolitics and Geostrategy

The article is devoted to an analysis of some concepts and geopolitical approaches towards the international relations in the Indian Ocean, later the Great Indian Ocean (GIO). It is the conceptual approaches that have given and give the opportunity to understand the system and structure of the IO region and to analyze the evolution, trends and practices in this system. In recent decades, the region has evolved from the mosaic of countries and the randomness of interstate relations in the first postcolonial years to a qualitatively different than before, expanded and central role in world politics and geostrategy due to new factors of the 21st century, many of which were somehow reflected in theoretical ideas of international relations (IO), proposed by Indian scholars. The article analyzes the correlation of approaches of Indian authors with Western approaches, reveals the features of Indian approaches in the context of the characteristics of the IR system of the Indian Ocean region, and identifies similarities with approaches of specialists from other Asian countries. The evolution of the concepts of Indian scientists has gone through three stages in its development. The first one is a postcolonial period till 1991, the end of bipolarity. The second is characterized by forming of the IO system under conditions of littoral states entrance in the IO scene and China intrusion in the Indian Ocean region. The essence of the third period is in transformation of the GIO IR system in force of the concept of uniting with the Asia-Pacific Region (APR) and forming Indo-Pacific megaregion.

The 1970s and 2008: Theorizing Benchmark Dates for Today’s Decentred Global Order

Many Western and non-Western scholars consider the 2008 financial crisis a fundamental caesura, precipitating a decentred globalism. However, they have neither conceptualized the foundations of the dynamics that developed before this caesura nor have they theorized the amalgamating process which ultimately merged the hitherto overlooked and the formerly predominant Western forces and actors. Addressing this deficit, this article presents two innovations. First, it re-conceptualizes the 1970s by integrating two macro-developments: China’s deviation from patterns of the former Third World’s development and the thickening of liberal politico-economic institutions. Their relationship was complementary, but independent, since heterogeneous purposes drove these strands. Neither was disrupted by the end of bipolarity. Thereby, this article offers the first narrative of the years 1970–2008, viewing them as the incubation period of both strands’ simultaneous development before their fusion in ‘decentred globalism’. Consequently, the 1970s supersede International Relations (IR’s) hegemonic benchmark date of 1989–1991. Second, the article accounts for the merging of macro-developments. It argues that, despite regularities, international social life is characterized by heterogeneous purposes derived from different social contexts, reflecting an environment that operates in multidirectional ways. Large trends in the environment, such as those of the 1970s, may coincide at contingent points in time (e.g., 2008). Based on comprehensive reviews of distinct literatures, these two innovations emerge as the key building blocks for the development of a theory of benchmark dates for a ‘decentred’ global order.

ФАКТОР СНГ В ОТНОШЕНИЯХ РОССИИ И ЗАПАДА: ИСТОКИ КОНФЛИКТА

The research is dedicated to the role of the CIS factor in the relations between Russia and the West (USA/NATO and the EU). As the Caucasus crisis of 2008 and the conflict around Ukraine in 2014 showed, the post-Soviet space became an apple of discord and an arena of rivalry between Russia and the West. The analysis of the causes of this phenomenon, primarily the mistakes of Russia and its CIS partner countries, as well as of the West after the collapse of the USSR, is the main objective of this article. The current Russia- West crisis stems from the profound misunderstanding of each other’s views regarding acceptable foundations of European security and stakes across the post-Soviet space. There were continuous (albeit open-ended) debates on the former: Moscow was against the European security built on the EU and NATO, in which Russia had no direct influence on policy-making. But the post-Soviet space was never discussed openly and sincerely during the post-Cold War era. The Ukrainian conflict has brought the Russia-West relations to the edge of confrontation for the first time since the end of the Cold War. However, the reason for this confrontation goes much deeper than the clash over Ukraine and roots heavily in the 1990s. Therefore, Ukrainian conflict should be viewed as a quintessence of mutual disappointment between Russia and the West, resulted from their mistakes after the end of bipolarity. These mistakes are related to the uneven end of the bipolar world order and uneven dissolution of the USSR. The end of bipolarity embodied in the collapse of the Soviet Union did not lead to a new world order that should have replaced the old 40-year system based on confrontation and “balance of fear”. The way the USSR was dissolved – with a stroke of a pen by the leaders of Russia, Ukraine and Byelorussia in December 1991, without serious negotiations on what the Newly Independent States inherited from the USSR – largely predetermined the fate of the CIS and relations between Russia and its post-Soviet neighbours. This became clear much later when Russia plunged into never-ending tensions with its neighbours over territorial, economic, defense and minorities issues. These contradictions are still casting a long shadow over Russia’s foreign policy. The Caucasus conflict of 2008 was a creation of the Russia-NATO/US differences over the security arrangements in the post-bipolar Europe, while the conflict over Ukraine smashed to pieces the West-Russia “strategic partnership” based on four common spaces of co-operation, because none of these spaces addressed the CIS issue. Сonsidering the origins of today’s crisis is of utmost importance for the future of Europe, since the Ukrainian conflict clearly demonstrated the danger of the emergence of new dividing lines in Europe. Russia’s policy in the post-Soviet space has been and remains the main factor that will influence the evolution of Russia’s relations with the West. And, conversely, the West’s policy towards the CIS countries will determine its relations with Russia to a decisive degree. Acknowledgements. The article has been prepared within the Project “Prospects for Cooperation between the European Union and Russia in the CIS”, Program of Fundamental Research of OGPMO RAN “Analysis and Forecast of New Global Challenges and Opportunities for Russia”.

America in the World after Hegemony

There are a variety of literatures that illuminate the logic and character of the post -Cold War transformation of the global system. One literature explores the rise and decline of the great powers and the international orders that they establish and dominate. This paper explores the evolution of the international system in historical perspective with particular emphasis on the role of the United States before and after the end of the Cold War against a backdrop of broader global context. It concentrates on the end of bipolarity and the emergence of unipolar system with American dominance and hegemony and its further decline. Washington failed to endorse with practical means its declared goal of “benign hegemon”. The author makes a comparative analysis between the dawn of the British Empire and current stage of crisis development of the United States with principal issue of transformation of the world order from unipolarity to multipolarity or from single power dominance to a more balanced international system. The paper also touches upon the strategic errors the American elite has made in its relationship with Russia and China referring to them as ”adversaries and revisionist powers” hostile to the US. America shortsightedly opened the gates of modernisation before China in the vain hope to make it an ally against the Soviet Union only to be disappointed later. And it underestimated the significance of rapid Russian assertion after the break up of the Soviet Union only to have a unique situation of “two fronts” in American history. As a result of his research the author comes to a conclusion and thoroughly substantiates it with facts that a new world order emerges which can be referred to as “improved status -quo” or alternative order with new economic, financial and political institutions in sight as opposed to the old Breton - Woods system of post WW2 American dominance. Still the open question persists whether this transformation can be peaceful and consensual or fraught with new hardship for the people and even military confrontation among great powers.

Italian Politics in an Era of Recession: The End of Bipolarism?

Italian politics have undergone momentous change in the 2007–2017 decade under the impact of the eurozone crisis, whose peak in 2011–2013 could be equated to the earlier watershed years of 1992–1994. The lasting impact of the upheaval in Italian politics in the early 1990s could still be felt in the decade of economic recession, but there were also new challenges prompted by a crisis that had its roots in international financial contagion and which unravelled under the shadow of both recession and austerity. The changes were of an economic, social, cultural, institutional, policy-oriented and political nature. If one central quintessentially political theme stands out by the end of this decade it is the apparent exhaustion of the quest for bipolarisation that was initiated in the early 1990s.

Estados Unidos e Rússia: Convergência e Divergência Geopolítica (1989-2016)

In the post-Cold War world, US and Russia bilateral relations have been characterized since 1989 by dynamics of cooperation and conflict, that shows the asymmetries of power between these two powers and their geopolitical disputes. The goal of this text is to examine these oscillations and ambiguities since the end of bipolarity till the 21 st century.

The impact of the 2013 general election on the Italian political system: the end of bipolarism?

This article offers an in-depth analysis of the way in which the results of the 2013 national elections have changed the Italian political system, with a particular emphasis on the crisis and possible end of bipolarism, and its consequences. Following a long, first phase of the Italian Republic in which bipolarism was neither practiced nor possible, the second phase (1994–2013) exhibited a muscular competition between two slightly changing political coalitions. It was also characterized by full, though often confused, rotation in government after each and every election. In the wake of the inconclusive February 2013 elections, the significant electoral success of the Movimento 5 Stelle (M5S, Five-Star Movement), and the formation of two governments occupying the center of the political alignment, two oppositions have made their appearance. The declining Forza Italia (FI) seems unable to launch any challenge to the incumbent government, while the M5S has so far positioned itself as an anti-system actor. Bipolarism seems no longer feasible unless a new electoral law restructures the party system and revives a decent European-style bipolar competition.

Ecological and Economic Dissonance Debate on Kilimanjaro Region: Reflecting on 2-Basic Questions Case to Establish E1/E2

Studying an interaction between more than one variable, both in influence and action is never an easy task, but establishing a key functional observation and question is even extremely difficult to an academician. The current literature therefore tries to re-establish an empirical debate between bi-polar ends, taking the influence of human destructive-constructive ends on both variables ecosystem (E1) and economic needs (E2).
 Kilimanjaro has been taken to represent a case in Tanzania reflecting African 4 – zones on economic agriculture, as it represents among sectors of economy, 47 percent of GDP and employs 85 percent of Tanzanian population. The current literature refers to Global perspective as Global warming covers not only Africa but the whole world reforms platforms.
 Institutional suggestions therefore cover solutions in terms of theoretical and empirical reflections for both. Where economic parameters and statistical dimensions cover the most dynamic era of plans, actions and the way forward (1990s -2000s). The evils of poverty has been linked to the impacts of unbalanced Dr. Msaki’s ratio (GE1/GE2=ɼ˚), where question A and B articulate further platforms for future researched. The literature concludes by re-establishing an implementation cycle of root I and II focused on balancing criterion of ɼ˚- establishment in terms of culture, strategies, focus and policies.
 JEL Classifications Code: E6

Regionalization, Pan-Asian Relations, and the Middle East

Research on the emerging links between the Middle East (West Asia) and other parts of Asia has grown considerably since late twentieth century. Indeed, the contributions to this special edition of the journal reflect some of the pioneering work taking place on pan-Asian relations encompassing new analysis of the Middle East’s links with the ‘East’—Central, South, and East Asia. The research in this field, looking back into history as well as forward, has grown in response to the changing dynamics of intra-Asian relations following the end of the Cold War in 1990 and the collapse of the Soviet Union as a Eurasian land empire just a year later. The end of bipolarity encouraged new transnational relations and further regionalization of a new world order. As multi-polarity has steadily given way to a state of non-polarity, so the veil has also been lifted on the significant economic and political ties which have grown across strategic regions. In considering strategic regions, it is contended here that Asia is home to the most dynamic of these, in terms of asset accumulation, geopolitical weight, population size, and economic prowess. But it is also significant for the volatility which appears along the fault lines of historical animosity, national security tensions, modern-day rivalries, border and resources disputes, and the strengthening of communalism and divisive role of identity politics. Moreover, the collapse of the Soviet control of much of Central Asia opened up new spaces for exchange in Asia, much encouraged by the exploitation of hydrocarbon reserves of the Soviet successor states in Asia (also Azerbaijan in the Caucasus). But, pan-Asian ties predate the post-Cold War transformations of the global system, and several Asian powers were able to negotiate mutually beneficial links soon after the Second World War. Although evidence of ancient pan-Asian relations is to be found in the Silk Road, systemic shift in our time is clearly leading to a perceptible transfer of the global economic balance Eastwards, which has brought with it the rise of energy-hungry Asian economies in the twenty-first century. Asian demand for energy has changed the complexion of Middle East-Asia relations, and pan-Asian relations in this context are today a reflection of the changing contours of the global political economy.

Евроатлантические отношения в XXI веке: проблемы и сценарии

The Euro-Atlantic relations after the end of the Cold war have been strongly influenced by the impact of three interrelated crises: the existential crisis of NATO, the world economic and financial crisis, and the crisis in the Russia-West relations. The end of bipolarity has changed the threat environment and revealed how different alliance members formulate their threat perception and foreign policy interests. Europe stopped to be the US foreign policy priority. The US pivot to Asia has raised European concerns about American commitments to collective defense. The removal of the threat of a global conflict resulted in the EU initiatives aimed at promoting integration in the field of common security and defense policy (CSDP). Even though the US has officially welcomed a stronger European pillar in NATO, it has become concerned about new approaches that could divide transatlantic partnership and take resources away from military cooperation. At the same time the unilateralist preferences of the Bush administration generated deep political divisions between the United States and the European Union. The world economic and financial crisis contributed to a dangerous gulf between American and European defense spending. The US has complained about the tendency of the alliance’s European members to skimp on defense spending and take advantage of America’s security shield to free ride. In the absence of a clear external threat NATO tried to draft new missions, which were found in NATO’s expansion to the post-Communist space and Alliance’s out of area operations. But these new missions could not answer the main question about NATO’s post-bipolar identity. Moreover, the Kosovo operation of NATO in 1999 fueled Russia’s concerns about NATO’s intentions in the post-Soviet space. The creeping crisis in the Russia-West relations resulted in the Caucasus and Ukrainian conflicts that provided kind of glue to transatlantic relations but did not return them to the old pattern. There can be several representing possible futures lying ahead. But under any scenario EU will be faced with a necessity to shoulder more of the burden of their own security.

Elezioni in Italia - Le elezioni politiche del 24-25 febbraio 2013: grande volatilità, fine del bipolarismo, stallo al Senato

Review of Italian elections, Italian General Elections (24-25 February 2013): High volatility, end of bipolarism, deadlock in Senate

The Middle East in Turkey–USA Relations: Managing the Alliance

The Middle East has been increasingly factoring into the relations between Turkey and the USA since the end of the cold war. Ironically, the issues related to this region simultaneously intensify and erode the bilateral relations. For the USA, the significance of Turkey has always related to some extent to the Middle East. For Turkey, on the other hand, during the cold war years this connection was not always welcomed. In the aftermath of the cold war, the Middle East became one of the most significant elements of the alliance, a development that was accepted by both sides. The changes in the international arena, such as the end of bipolarity and post-9/11 developments as well as regional changes, particularly the Iraqi crises, Iranian nuclear issue, the Arab uprisings and changes in the regional balance of power, had an impact on the evolution of American–Turkish relations and created both convergence and divergence of interests. Finally, domestic politics, especially the ideology and policies of state actors, had a bearing on bilateral relations in the context of the Middle East. As Turkey became more active and developed particular interests in the Middle East, the crises in Turkey–USA relations began to occur more frequently and led to bargaining processes between the two allies.

The Roles of Bipolarity: A Role Theoretic Understanding of the Effects of Ideas and Material Factors on the Cold War

Since the end of the Cold War, scholars have debated the merits of the major theoretical traditions in international relations and foreign policy. Neorealism was criticized for failing to predict the end of bipolarity in material capabilities. Constructivism emerged during this time as a viable alternative explanation for the Cold War based on the role of ideas. This paper seeks to assess the impact of material and ideational factors on the origin, development, and end of the Cold War through an examination of the roles adopted by U.S. Presidents in their foreign policy doctrines. The paper finds that the origin of the Cold War was primarily ideational and was constituted by the “roles of bipolarity” adopted in the Truman Doctrine. During the Cold War, minor variations in these roles can be explained by shifts in material capabilities. The end of the Cold War was the result of changes in Soviet ideas, which were later confirmed by the collapse of the Soviet Union. After the end of bipolarity, we see the United States struggling to identify its proper foreign policy role.

Distribution of costameric proteins in normal human ventricular and atrial cardiac muscle.

In the mature heart, the intercalated disc and costameres provide the cell-cell and cell-matrix junctions respectively. Intercalated disc is situated at the bipolar ends of the cardiomyocytes and the myofibrils are anchored at this structure. The costameres mediate integration with the extracellular matrix that covers individual cardiomyocytes laterally. Costameres are considered as "proteic machinery" that appears to comprise two protein complexes: the dystrophin-glycoprotein complex (DGC) and the vinculin-talin-integrin system. There are structural differences between atrial and ventricular myocytes, but there have been relatively few studies that have analyzed costameres and focal adhesion function in cardiac cells. Our previous study carried out only on atrial myocytes, demonstrated that the DGC and talin-vinculin-integrin complexes had a costameric distribution that, unlike skeletal muscle, it localized only on the I band. We performed a further immunohistochemical analysis extending also the evaluation to the normal human cardiac muscle fibers obtained from ventricle and interventricular septum, in order to define the distribution and the spatial relationship between the proteins of the two complexes also in the other heart districts. Immunoconfocal microscopy of cardiac tissue revealed the costameric distribution of DGC and of vinculin-talin-integrin system, the association of all tested proteins in intercalated disks, in disagreement with other Authors, and in T-tubule with irregular spokelike extensions penetrating toward the center of the cell. Moreover, our data showed that all tested proteins colocalize between each other.

Synaptic input of ON‐bipolar cells onto the dopaminergic neurons of the mouse retina

In the retina, dopamine fulfills a crucial role in neural adaptation to photopic illumination, but the pathway that carries cone signals to the dopaminergic amacrine (DA) cells was controversial. We identified the site of ON-cone bipolar input onto DA cells in transgenic mice in which both types of catecholaminergic amacrine (CA) cells were labeled with green fluorescent protein or human placental alkaline phosphatase (PLAP). In confocal Z series of retinal whole mounts stained with antibodies to tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), DA cells gave rise to varicose processes that descended obliquely through the scleral half of the inner plexiform layer (IPL) and formed a loose, tangential plexus in the middle of this layer. Comparison with the distribution of the dendrites of type 2 CA cells and examination of neurobiotin-injected DA cells proved that their vitreal processes were situated in stratum S3 of the IPL. Electron microscope demonstration of PLAP activity showed that bipolar cell endings in S3 established ribbon synapses onto a postsynaptic dyad in which one or both processes were labeled by a precipitate of lead phosphate and therefore belonged to DA cells. In places, the postsynaptic DA cell processes returned a reciprocal synapse onto the bipolar endings. Confocal images of sections stained with antibodies to TH, kinesin Kif3a, which labels synaptic ribbons, and glutamate or GABA(A) receptors, confirmed that ribbon-containing endings made glutamatergic synapses onto DA cells processes in S3 and received from them GABAergic synapses. The presynaptic ON-bipolar cells most likely belonged to the CB3 (type 5) variety.