Biopolymer-based Delivery Systems Research Articles

Carvacrol Encapsulation in Chitosan-Carboxymethylcellulose-Alginate Nanocarriers for Postharvest Tomato Protection.

Advancements in polymer science and nanotechnology hold significant potential for addressing the increasing demands of food security, by enhancing the shelf life, barrier properties, and nutritional quality of harvested fruits and vegetables. In this context, biopolymer-based delivery systems present themselves as a promising strategy for encapsulating bioactive compounds, improving their absorption, stability, and functionality. This study provides an exploration of the synthesis, characterization, and postharvest protection applications of nanocarriers formed through the complexation of chitosan oligomers, carboxymethylcellulose, and alginate in a 2:2:1 molar ratio. This complexation process was facilitated by methacrylic anhydride and sodium tripolyphosphate as cross-linking agents. Characterization techniques employed include transmission electron microscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, infrared spectroscopy, thermal analysis, and X-ray powder diffraction. The resulting hollow nanospheres, characterized by a monodisperse distribution and a mean diameter of 114 nm, exhibited efficient encapsulation of carvacrol, with a loading capacity of approximately 20%. Their suitability for phytopathogen control was assessed in vitro against three phytopathogens-Botrytis cinerea, Penicillium expansum, and Colletotrichum coccodes-revealing minimum inhibitory concentrations ranging from 23.3 to 31.3 μg·mL-1. This indicates a higher activity compared to non-encapsulated conventional fungicides. In ex situ tests for tomato (cv. 'Daniela') protection, higher doses (50-100 μg·mL-1, depending on the pathogen) were necessary to achieve high protection. Nevertheless, these doses remained practical for real-world applicability. The advantages of safety, coupled with the potential for a multi-target mode of action, further enhance the appeal of these nanocarriers.

Biopolymers in Drug and Gene Delivery Systems 2.0

In recent years, significant progress has been made in the design and development of biopolymer-based delivery systems for a wide range of applications, including cancer therapy, gene editing, regenerative medicine, and vaccine delivery [...]

From nanotoxicology to nano-enabled agriculture: Following the science at the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station (CAES)

The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station was founded in 1875 and has a 147-year history of “Putting Science to Work for Society.” No program exemplifies that core mission more than the Station’s 12-year effort on nanotechnology. This work first started in the realm of nanotoxicology, evaluating the negative effects of these potential emerging contaminants on crop species and in agricultural systems. However, as evidence began increasing that select nanomaterials at appropriate doses and under certain conditions could actually convey some benefit to plant species, work in nano-enabled agriculture began. With an increasing population and a changing climate driving food insecurity, CAES has developed a robust program on the safe and sustainable application of nanotechnology for food production and preservation. Initiatives include novel strategies for crop protection against a range of pathogens; enhancing crop tolerance abiotic stresses such as drought, salinity, and toxic metal contamination; elevating rates of photosynthesis; developing biopolymer-based delivery systems for agrochemicals with much greater efficiency and efficacy; and novel food nanoscale strategies for food preservation. By collaborating with over 30 domestic and international institutions, CAES has and will continue to lead and participate in efforts to combat global food insecurity.

Microencapsulation of retinoic acid by atomization into biopolymeric matrices: Binary and ternary blends of alginic acid sodium, xanthan gum and modified chitosan

Retinoic acid (RA) is recognized for its therapeutic value in the treatment of several malignancies. Particularly, it is a successful antitumor agent used in patients with acute promyelocytic leukaemia (APL). Development of an appropriate delivery system for RA administration might improve the stabilization of this retinoid under undesirable conditions, reduce severe side-effects related to RA administration and increase the amount of RA that reach the target cells/tissues. In the present work, binary and ternary blends of biopolymers (xanthan gum + alginic acid sodium, modified chitosan + alginic acid sodium, modified chitosan + xanthan gum and modified chitosan + xanthan gum + alginic acid sodium) were considered to prepare oil-in-water emulsions for RA-loaded biopolymer-based delivery systems formation using spray-drying technology. Rheological properties (i.e. viscosity), stability and droplet size distribution of the emulsions were analysed. Product yield varied from 16 to 41% among all the microparticles produced (empty and loaded with coconut oil – with and without RA – and surfactant). Microparticles exhibited a spherical form, smooth or rough surfaces and a mean diameter between 2.88 ± 0.01 and 6.9 ± 0.4 μm, considering a volume size distribution. Considering RA-loaded microparticles, encapsulation efficiency was significantly higher for the microparticles composed by the xanthan gum + alginic acid sodium blend (76 ± 4%). Moreover, the slower RA release (almost 7 h) was observed from most of the microparticles composed by alginic acid sodium. For microparticles composed by the modified chitosan + alginic acid sodium blend the shortest RA release time (100 min) was observed.

Spray-drying of oil-in-water emulsions for encapsulation of retinoic acid: Polysaccharide- and protein-based microparticles characterization and controlled release studies

Oil-in-water emulsions were proposed to produce retinoic acid (RA)-loaded biopolymer-based delivery systems applying spray-drying technology. They were characterized regarding rheological properties (i.e. viscosity), stability and droplet size distribution. The usage of a spray-dryer inlet air temperature of 130 ֯C significantly increased RA encapsulation efficiency for modified chitosan-based microparticles. Empty and oil-loaded (with and without RA) microparticles were produced with a product yield between 12 and 41%. Microparticles with a mean diameter from 1.712 ± 0.004 and 12.9 ± 0.3 μm were produced, as well as with a morphology that varied from a very smooth to a high rough surface structure. The time required for the complete RA release from microparticles to the surrounding environment (octanol) – release time – varied according to the biopolymers used in the microparticles formulations. The faster RA controlled release was registered from microparticles composed by xanthan and arabic gums (48 and 94 min, respectively). In turn, alginic acid sodium-based microparticles enabled to increase the RA release time for almost 8 h.

Tailoring Alginate/Chitosan Microparticles Loaded with Chemical and Biological Agents for Agricultural Application and Production of Value-Added Foods

This work reviews the recent development of biopolymer-based delivery systems for agricultural application. Encapsulation into biopolymer microparticles ensures the protection and targeted delivery of active agents while offering controlled release with higher efficiency and environmental safety for ecological and sustainable plant production. Encapsulation of biological agents provides protection and increases its survivability while providing an environment safe for growth. The application of microparticles loaded with chemical and biological agents presents an innovative way to stimulate plant metabolites synthesis. This enhances plants’ defense against pests and pathogens and results in the production of higher quality food (i.e., higher plant metabolites share). Ionic gelation was presented as a sustainable method in developing biopolymeric microparticles based on the next-generation biopolymers alginate and chitosan. Furthermore, this review highlights the advantages and disadvantages of advanced formulations against conventional ones. The significance of plant metabolites stimulation and their importance in functional food production is also pointed out. This review offers guidelines in developing biopolymeric microparticles loaded with chemical and biological agents and guidelines for the application in plant production, underlining its effect on the plant metabolites synthesis.

Re-assembled oleic acid-protein complexes as nano-vehicles for astaxanthin: Multispectral analysis and molecular docking

In the case of carotenoids, lipid delivery systems are superior in promoting intestinal absorption, while biopolymer-based delivery systems (e.g. protein) have advantages in biocompatibility, biodegradability and controlled release. Therefore, based on the multi-ligand binding properties of protein, we proposed fatty acid-protein complexes as nano-vehicles for encapsulating astaxanthin (ASTA). In this work, oleic acid (OA)–bovine serum albumin (BSA) complexes were fabricated by a pH-driven method. Under the optimized conditions, after OA binding to BSA at a molar ratio of 4:1, slight changes of protein secondary structure appeared and it's surface hydrophobicity increased from 14490 to 25324. When the binding molar ratios of ASTA to BSA ranged from 0.5:1 to 5:1, the ASTA–OA–BSA aqueous dispersions showed better clarity than that of ASTA–BSA. Compared with OA-free BSA, improved encapsulation efficiency and loading capacity were also observed for OA–loading BSA. Based on the fluorescence spectra and Stern–Volmer equation analysis, ASTA binding to the OA-loading BSA displayed a static manner mainly through hydrogen binding and van der Waals interactions. According to the results of site marker competitive experiments and molecular docking, the subdomains IIA and IIIA of BSA should be the acceptor sites of ASTA, and the subdomain IIIA was indicated to be the preferential one. Interestingly, OA as a protein ligand can dramatically enhanced the binding capacity of subdomain IIA to ASTA and make it the preferred acceptor site. In conclusion, OA–BSA nanoparticles as a delivery system should be suitable for fat-soluble nutrients such as carotenoids.

Influence of electrostatic interactions on the formation and stability of multilayer fish oil-in-water emulsions stabilized by whey protein-xanthan-locust bean complexes

The purpose of this research was to investigate the impact of electrostatic interactions on the stability of multilayered fish oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions stabilized by whey protein isolate (WPI)-xanthan (XG)-locust bean gum (LBG) complexes. Emulsions were prepared using the layer-by-layer deposition technique with salt concentrations (0, 5, and 50 mM NaCl) at pH below (pH 3) and above (pH 7) the isoelectric point of WPI. Results indicated that zeta potential at pH 3 resulted in positive values, whereas at pH 7 resulted in negative values, with the magnitude of the ζ-potentials increasing as the NaCl concentration increased. NaCl did not have any major impact on the particle size of the emulsions. XG emulsions had the highest viscosity at pH 3 regardless of time, though XG-LBG emulsions showed a significant increase at 0 and 5 mM NaCl over time. XG emulsions at pH 3 showed the highest viscosity at every salt concentration. At pH 7, XG-LBG emulsions had the highest viscosity results, yet decreased over time, indicating the negative salt effect the synergistic interaction between XG and LBG. With 0 mM and 5 mM NaCl at pH 7, XG-LBG emulsions had the highest creaming stability; while with 50 mM NaCl, XG emulsions had the highest creaming stability. For both the primary and secondary lipid oxidation tests, XG-LBG emulsions had the highest oxidative stability at every salt concentration at pH 7. These results have important implications in the design of biopolymer-based delivery systems for microencapsulating omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids for use in functional foods.

Protein-Based Nanoparticles for the Delivery of Enzymes with Antibacterial Activity.

Proteins represent a versatile biopolymer material for the preparation of nanoparticles due to their biocompatibility, biodegradability, and low immunogenicity. This study presents a protein-based nanoparticle system consisting of high surface PEGylated lysozyme polyethylene glycol-modified lysozyme (LYZmPEG ). This protein modification leads to a solubility switch, which allows a nanoparticle preparation using a mild double emulsion method without the need of surfactants. The method allows the encapsulation of large hydrophilic payloads inside of the protein-based nanoparticle system. Native lysozyme (LYZ) was chosen as payload because of its innate activity as natural antibiotic. The mild particle preparation procedure retains the structure and activity of the enzyme which was successfully tested against the gram-positive bacteria strain M. Luteus. In comparison, the particle system shows no toxicity to human cells. This first report of a full protein-based particle material for the transport of large hydrophilic payloads opens up new therapeutic applications for biopolymer-based delivery systems.

Food-Grade Covalent Complexes and Their Application as Nutraceutical Delivery Systems: A Review.

Food proteins, polysaccharides, and polyphenols are 3 major food constituents with distinctly different functional attributes. Many proteins and polysaccharides are capable of stabilizing emulsions and foams, thickening solutions, and forming gels, although they differ considerably in their abilities to provide these functional attributes. Many plant polyphenols exhibit beneficial physiological functions, such as antitumor, antioxidant, antibacterial, and antiviral properties. Proteins, polysaccharides, and polyphenols can form complexes with each other, which leads to changes in the functional and nutritional properties of the combined systems. Recently, there has been considerable interest in understanding and utilizing covalent interactions between polyphenols and biopolymers (proteins and polysaccharides). The binary or tertiary conjugates formed may be designed to have physicochemical properties and functional attributes that cannot be achieved using the individual components. This article provides a review of the formation, characterization, and utilization of conjugates prepared using proteins, polysaccharides, and polyphenols. It also discusses the relationship between the structural properties and functionality of the conjugates, and it highlights the bioavailability of bioactive compounds loaded in conjugate-based delivery systems. In addition, it highlights the main challenges to be considered when preparing and analyzing conjugates. This article provides an improved understanding of the chemical reactions that occur between major food ingredients and how they can be utilized to develop biopolymer-based delivery systems with enhanced functional attributes.

Advances in molecular design of biopolymer-based delivery micro/nanovehicles for essential fatty acids

The demand of food products fortified with essential omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) continues to increase around the world. However, the increased oxidative instability of omega-3 PUFAs hinders their use as health-promoting food ingredients owing to the expected deterioration of the food product quality. One of the successful ways to tackle this difficulty is the micro- and nanoencapsulation of PUFAs in the different kinds of the biopolymer-based delivery systems. By this means this review article focuses on the recent advances in the molecular design of biopolymer – based nanoscale delivery systems (nanoparticles and nanoelmulsions) for essential PUFAs specifically. These advances concern the ways of both the formation of such systems and the biopolymer modification (physical, chemical or enzymatic), which are used to increase the potential of biopolymers relative to the PUFAs nanoencapsulation and protection against oxidation in particular.

Biopolymer-Based Delivery Systems: Challenges and Opportunities.

Biopolymer-based nanostructures or microstructures can be fabricated with different compositions, structures, and properties so that colloidal delivery systems can be tailored for specific applications. These structures can be assembled using various approaches, including electrospinning, coacervation, nanoprecipitation, injection, layer-by-layer deposition, and/or gelation. A major application of biopolymer-based particles is to encapsulate, protect, and release active molecules in the agricultural, food, supplements, personal care, and pharmaceutical sectors. The inherent variability and complexity of biopolymers (proteins and polysaccharides) often makes it challenging to produce particles with well-defined physicochemical and functional attributes. In this review, we discuss the properties of biopolymers, common particle fabrication methods, and some of the major challenges and opportunities associated with developing biopolymer-based particles for application as food-grade delivery systems.

Structured biopolymer-based delivery systems for encapsulation, protection, and release of lipophilic compounds

Food-grade biopolymers, such as proteins and polysaccharides, can be used to create a diverse range of delivery systems suitable for encapsulating, protecting, and delivering lipophilic functional components, such as ω-3 rich oils, conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), oil-soluble vitamins, flavors, colors, and nutraceuticals. This article provides an overview of a number of different approaches that can be used to create structured delivery systems based on biopolymers, including molecular complexation, coacervation, thermodynamic incompatibility, moulding, and extrusion methods. These delivery systems can be produced from food-grade ingredients using simple processing operations ( e.g., mixing, homogenizing, and thermal processing). The structure, production, performance, and potential applications of each type of structured delivery system are discussed.

Biopolymer-based delivery systems for advanced imaging and skeletal tissue-specific therapeutics

There is considerable advantage in developing tissue-specific delivery systems for therapeutic and diagnostic applications. Synthetic water-soluble polymeric delivery systems have been developed to allow selective delivery of therapeutic and imaging agents to musculoskeletal tissues. For mineralized tissues, bone-targeting agents such as aspartic acid octapeptide could concentrate the polymer conjugates to bone surfaces including resorption sites, which was demonstrated with routine bone histomorphometry. For bone-associated soft tissues, other targeting approaches based on pathophysiological properties unique to the local tissue environment, such as the leaky vasculature in arthritic joints, were utilized to achieve the selective deposition of the polymeric delivery systems to the desired sites. For this study, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was used to assess real-time pharmacokinetics and biodistribution of the MRI contrast agent conjugated polymer in major organs including skeletal tissues. The MRI data were then correlated with other standard imaging methods such as pQCT and DXA as well as routine histopathology and skeletal histomorphometry. Clearly, biopolymeric delivery systems may be used to improve the pharmacological and pharmacokinetic properties of different therapeutic agents for musculoskeletal diseases such as osteoporosis and arthritis. In addition, this or related technologies may also be useful to improve diagnosis and medical imaging with positron emission tomography, gamma scintigraphy, or other technologies.