Biofuel Plantations Research Articles

Biofuel feedstock plantations closure and land abandonment in Ghana: New directions for land studies in Sub-Saharan Africa

Biofuel production is promoted in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) to address multiple policy objectives, including energy security, rural development, and climate mitigation. However, several biofuel plantations have been closed or abandoned for various reasons, including a confluence of global circumstances and underperformance at the local level. Nevertheless, there is limited research on the impacts of biofuel plantation closures and post-closure dynamics across SSA. Through interviews in three different communities, this study seeks to highlight issues that are emerging in host communities after the closure or abandonment of biofuel plantations. It was found that critical issues emerging after the closure of plantations include how to secure alternative livelihoods for former workers, whether land rights are to be transferred back to the previous owners, how will ecological restoration of the sites take place, and why investors are rebranding closed projects into other new forms of investments. A new direction of research on land abandonment and post-closure outcomes is necessary to provide insight into policies essential for sustainable development in the host communities. It is, therefore, imperative for new land studies to explore the interface of land abandonment, plantation closure and sustainable development in SSA.

Quantification of greenhouse gas emissions from managed biofuel plantations in a semi-arid landscape of Southern India

Jatropha curcas L. and Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre, are promising biofuel species in peninsular India. We quantified greenhouse gas fluxes from managed 9 year old plantations of these species for all seasons in three consecutive years (2012–2013, 2013–2014 and 2014–2015) using manually-operated closed chamber method. CH4, N2O and CO2 were analysed by using Varian 450-GC based on Gas Chromotography. The mean soil CO2, CH4, and N2O emissions in the Jatropha curcas plantation recorded were 7.720 t ha−1 y−1, 0.023 t ha−1 y−1 and 0.017 t ha−1 y−1, respectively. While in Pongamia pinnata soil CO2, CH4, and N2O emissions were recorded to be 7.633 t ha−1 y−1, 0.008 t ha−1 y−1 and 0.019 t ha−1 y−1, respectively. Our results indicate that Jatropha curcas has higher GHG emissions than Pongamia pinnata. A pronounced seasonal variability was observed in CH4, N2O and CO2 flux rates. The highest emissions for Jatropha curcas occur during rainy season, whereas for Pongamia pinnata it occurs during winter. Soil moisture and temperature being the most influencing factors for CO2 fluxes from soil. We conclude that these plantation has an effect on soil-atmosphere GHG exchanges and can act as a good source of mitigation of greenhouse gases.

Assessment of Molecular Diversity in Biofuel Crops.

Sustainable biofuel sources require the new sources of biofuel crops that can be developed into scalable plantation to meet the growing energy demands. Diverse supply sources of bioenergy plantations (edible, nonedible, and perennial grasses) will enable de-risking impact on geography and climate change that humans are likely to face in future. Use of phenotypic descriptors alone does not provide a deep insight into plantation population dynamics and molecular diversity of a biofuel crop. We provide protocols and methods to rapidly assess population parameters for emerging biofuel crops using genomics. This article has an application focus on next-generation sequencing to assess biofuel crop diversity. Use of these methods can accelerate germplasm assessment to accelerate population development and creation of sustainable biofuel plantations.

Restoration of degraded lands through bioenergy plantations

Land degradation has become a worldwide problem. Increasing population, the conversion of forest land into cropland, and its gradual degradation due to unsustainable agricultural practices have led to this prevailing scenario. Unsustainable agriculture practices like use of chemical fertilizers for increasing crop productivity (recorded 281.75 lakh tonnes in the year 2010–2011) also leads to degradation of land. A total of 4.1 million hectares of culturable wasteland was recorded in the same year. Also, crude oil consumption is increasing at a rate of 1.7% which prompts for massive input of crude oil. Thus, biofuel plantations have recently attracted a lot of attention because of several advantages that they present. The genetically engineered bioenergy crops can help in land restoration by increasing the soil fertility, growing in stress conditions, and they also lead to the production of fuels through their various parts. The use of genetically engineered bioenergy crops will not only help in the prevention of degraded land but also yield biofuel as a product and enhance soil fertility and health for further sustainable agricultural practices.

Effect of ash application on the decomposer food web and N mineralization in a Norway spruce plantation.

In the face of global climate change there is an increasing demand for biofuel, which exerts pressure on production and thus management of biofuel plantations. The intensification of whole-tree harvest from biofuel plantations increases export of nutrients. Returning ash from biofuel combustion to the forest plantations can amend the soil nutrient status and thus facilitate sustainable forest management. However, ash affects the forest floor decomposer food web, potentially changing organic matter turnover, carbon sequestration and nitrogen availability. Our aim was to examine the response of decomposer organisms, food web structure and nitrogen mineralization function after ash application. In a coniferous forest plantation amended with 0, 3, 4.5 or 6t ash ha-1, we sampled in several depths of the forest floor for key organisms of the decomposer food web (fungal biomass, 0-12cm; bacteria, protozoa, nematodes and enchytraeids, 0-3cm and 3-6cm; microarthropods and earthworms, 0-5cm), 2, 14 and 26months after ash application. We used structural equation modelling (SEM) to detangle the direct and indirect effects of ash application on organisms in the decomposer food web and on nitrogen availability. We found that ash increased the abundance of bacteria and protozoa, as well as the inorganic nitrogen pool at 0-3cm depth, whereas the effect of ash was negligible at 3-6cm depth. Earthworm abundance increased, whereas enchytraeid abundance decreased 2years after ash application. The structural equation modelling showed that ash application stimulated the bacterial feeding pathway and increased nitrogen mineralization. Contrary, ash had a negative effect on fungal biomass at the first sampling, however, this effect subdued over time. Our results suggest that as the soil decomposer food web is resilient to ash application, this is a viable option for sustainable management of biofuel plantations.

Impact of land use change on soil aggregate dynamics in the dry tropics

AbstractA 2‐year study was conducted to elucidate land use change (LUC) impact on the distribution of aggregate size fractions and associated carbon (C) concentration involving natural forest (NF), degraded forest (DF), cropland (CL), and biofuel plantation (JP, Jatropha plantation) in the dry tropical region of India across the soil profile (0–10, 10–20, and 20–30 cm). Across the seasons and the land uses, the proportion of macro‐ and microaggregates was maximum at upper and minimum at lower layer whereas mesoaggregates increase with depth. The trend of macro‐ and microaggregate fractions through the soil profile was NF > JP > DF > CL whereas that of mesoaggregates was CL > DF < JP > NF. Dry mean weight diameter was highest at upper layer and decreased down the depth in all the land uses and followed the trend NF > JP > DF > CL. Aggregate associated organic carbon (OC) concentration in all the fractions decreased from NF to DF, CL, or JP indicates that macroaggregate associated OC concentration was more susceptible to loss than that of meso‐ and microaggregate associated OC concentration. LUC induced decline in macroaggregate associated OC stock and increase in meso‐ and microaggregate associated OC stock; indicated redistribution of OC stock among aggregate fractions. It may be concluded that JP in dry tropics can be an efficient strategy for rehabilitation of degraded land as it improves aggregate structure and stability in the whole profile and aggregate associated OC stock in upper layer of soil.

High mammal species turnover in forest patches immersed in biofuel plantations

Remnant habitat patches immersed within biofuel cropland matrices can retain considerable species diversity, although the effects of land use change on species persistence in historically modified landscapes remain unclear. The Atlantic Forest is one of the most fragmented South American biodiversity hotspots and retains about 12% of its original vegetation cover. Most of these remnants are distributed in small isolated fragments immersed mainly within pastures and sugarcane monocultures. Here we examine how species richness and composition of medium and large-sized mammals are explained by forest cover, structural area and forest edge amount at the landscape scale. We sampled 22 fragmented landscapes dominated by sugarcane plantations along a wide gradient of forest cover (3% to 96%) in southeastern Brazil. We recorded 88% of terrestrial mammal species expected for this region, but many likely local extirpations were detected at the landscape scale, with losses between 50% to 80% of species. Most of the landscapes were highly depleted of forest-specialist species, with replacements by exotics and/or species typical of non-forest habitats. We found that total mammalian species richness, which includes forest-specialists, generalists, exotics and non-forest dwelling species, was not affected by landscape metrics, such as forest cover, structural area and forest edge amount. Nevertheless, forest cover was important predictor of the presence of three ungulates, a medium-sized rodent, and an armadillo. Local mammalian communities exhibited a high degree of species turnover between landscapes, representing 95% of the total β-diversity. In this region, where there was no regional extinction, landholder compliance with the Brazilian Forest Bill and restoration measures will enhance habitat connectivity and mammal persistence across the wider unprotected countryside.

Biofuels and the hazards of land grabbing: Tenure (in)security and indigenous farmers’ investment decisions in Ghana

The past decade has witnessed a renewed interest in transnational land deals in the developing land-abundant countries of Sub Sahara Africa (SSA), Asia and Latin America following the convergence of the global financial, food and energy crises in the mid 2000s. In much of SSA, these deals occur on customary lands which are managed by traditional authorities on behalf of and in trust for the entire local community and are thus occupied by indigenous farmers. The traditional authorities have, for diverse reasons, become much interested in alienating large tracts of customary lands to foreign investors for biofuel and food crop plantations. In this paper, we examine the effects of the current mode of communal land acquisition for Jatropha cultivation in Ghana on the security of indigenous farmers’ land rights and their decisions to invest in their farms. Empirical evidence is based on primary data collected from field surveys conducted in two districts in Ghana; Yeji and Ejura in the Brong Ahafo and Ashanti regions respectively. We observed that the increasing appropriation of communal lands for biofuel plantations without consultation, fair and adequate compensation to the indigenous land holders has resulted in uncertainty and tenure insecurity among farmers in affected communities. Consequently, such farmers have become relatively disinterested in farming, cultivating smaller farm sizes and thereby showing low investments in their farms. These findings provide a new perspective for considering the relationship between increasing biofuel cultivation and food security in developing Africa.

Which smallholder farmers benefit most from biomass production for food and biofuel? The case of Gondola district, central Mozambique

We analysed the influence of the mode of participation in biomass production for biofuels on food security of different farm types. We studied two modes of participation in biomass production: an outgrower scheme for sunflower and a jatropha plantation offering full time employment and assessed the four dimensions of food security: availability, access, stability and utilization in smallholder farms in Central Mozambique. We interviewed 80 households who were participating in the sunflower outgrower scheme, had a household member working on the jatropha plantation or were not participating with biofuel production. For each household we quantified four indicators: maize sales minus purchases, gross revenue, revenue diversity, and household dietary diversity scores. Involvement of smallholder farmers with biomass production for fuel had a positive or no impact on the four dimensions of food security at the farm level. Positive food security impacts from working on the biofuel plantation were improvements in availability for the larger farms and improvements in access for the smaller farms. Utilization of food was generally not impacted. Impacts on food security from the sunflower outgrower scheme were minor. There is scope to improve the outgrower scheme with services and inputs that increase sunflower yields and give positive spill-overs to other crops.

Nitrogen and Carbon of Switchgrass, Loblolly Pine, and Cottonwood Biofuel Production Systems in the Southeast United States

Switchgrass has favorable characteristics as a biofuel feedstock, and it may be feasibly grown on sites currently forested or retired from agricultural production. It is ecologically important to understand the impacts of establishing and managing switchgrass on site nutrient cycling. Four studies conducted in the southeast United States tested switchgrass as a bioenergy crop grown in monoculture, in alley cropping systems, and as an alternative to conventional agricultural rotations. Each trial included comparisons of switchgrass with the prevailing land uses. In each trial, nitrogen mineralization (Nmin), nitrification (Nnit), microbial biomass carbon (Cmic), microbial activity, and labile carbon were measured because of their sensitivity to management practices that alter soil nutrient cycling. In all studies of loblolly pine and switchgrass, switchgrass was apparently the dominant substrate source for C mic , and N min increased when juvenile loblolly pine was isolated with herbicide as the sole vegetation. However, Cmic and Nmin of loblolly pine-switchgrass alley cropping systems were similar to those observed in conventional juvenile loblolly pine plantation conditions. In a trial of converting former agricultural fields into switchgrass or cottonwood biofuel plantations, this conversion reduced Nnit, and therefore the potential for nitrogen losses compared with those for a soybean-sorghum rotation typical for such sites.

Local Perceptions about the Effects of Jatropha (Jatropha curcas) and Castor (Ricinus communis) Plantations on Households in Ghana and Ethiopia

Biofuel plantations have been hyped as a means to reinvigorate Africa’s rural areas. Yet there is still apprehension about the negative environmental and social impacts of large-scale commercial biofuel production around rising food prices, land grabbing, ecological damage, and disruption of rural livelihoods. Given the extent of Jatropha curcas production in Ghana and Ethiopia and Castor bean (Ricinus communis) in Ethiopia, this paper presents the results of a study that assessed the socio-economic implications of industrial Jatropha plantations on local livelihoods in Ghana, and of industrial Jatropha and Castor plantations on local livelihoods in Ethiopia. This study used primary data collected from 234 households in Ghana and 165 in Ethiopia. The cultivation of Jatropha and Castor has had several important effects on local livelihoods in the study sites, most notably decreases in household landholdings due to the arrival of industrial Jatropha or Castor plantations; and the resulting changes these plantations have caused in household socio-economic status, food security, fallow periods, and fodder availability. We consider how a lack of meaningful consultation between local people, their traditional authorities and the biofuel company managers, along with shortcomings in each country’s broader land acquisition process and poor land use information, may have contributed to these overall negative effects on local livelihoods. We conclude by suggesting several ways that emerging biofuel industries could be improved from the perspective of local people and their livelihoods.

The impact of biofuel plantation on biodiversity: a review

Because plants convert solar energy into chemical energy stored in organisms, biomass production as an energy source can help to reduce the world’s reliance on fossil energy and mitigate global warming. Biofuel production is a fast-growing industry that represents a new type of large-scale human disturbance on ecosystems. Thus, the benefits of biofuel production bring environmental risks that include its potential impact on biodiversity, which is still an open question. In this review, we start first with a brief overview of the evolution of biofuel concept; second, we review the state of biofuel production across the continents, with a major emphasis on the main species used and their major feedstock. For which, we found significant differences for land use and environmental cultural management of biofuel plantation between tropical and temperate regions. Third, we summarize the impacts of biofuel plantation on biodiversity at multiple scales, based on the case studied with respect to the corresponding issues. At the genetic level, introgression and contamination by aggressive genotypes are a primary risk. At the species level, habitat pollution, degradation, and disturbance caused by intensive management of biofuel plantation significantly raise the risk of habitat fragmentation, native extinction, and bio-invasion. At the ecosystem level, the large-scale homogeneous landscape of biofuel plantation results in simplified community and food web that severely damage ecosystem services, including ecosystem diversity. Finally, we compare the current and potential benefits and risks of biofuel plantations for the practical application of a biofuel industry of China. We emphasize the land use constraint from food security and biodiversity conservation, and the need for scientific research and systematic monitoring as a critical support for the sustainable development of biofuel production in China.

Understanding bioenergy conflicts: Case of a jatropha project in Kenya's Tana Delta

In recent years, conflicts related to tenure, management and utilization of natural resources, in particular bioenergy conflicts, are becoming increasingly common. Many bioenergy conflicts are related to plantation projects seeking to capitalize on the opportunity to profit from a combination of factors, centred on the enabling environment for biofuel plantation establishment found in many developing countries. This study analyses these and other related issues in a conflict in the Tana Delta in Kenya. The conflict is centred on a proposed 65,000ha Jatropha curcas plantation for biodiesel by the Canadian company Bedford. Ethical Analysis, a conflict management and research tool, was employed to better understand the underlying conflict causes. Shortcomings in the technical feasibility studies and participatory planning processes were revealed, including a poor understanding of the different interests and values with regard to land tenure and traditional rights. While the adoption of Free, Prior and Informed Consent (FPIC) is proposed, also capacities and the regulatory framework need to be strengthened to improve transparency, coordination, impact assessment and investment security. The study proposes ways to manage the ongoing conflict and discusses its implications for bioenergy governance.

Genetic Diversity of Biofuel and Naturalized Napiergrass (Pennisetum purpureum)

AbstractBiofuel crops such as napiergrass possess traits characteristic of invasive plant species, raising concern that biofuels might escape cultivation and invade surrounding agricultural and natural areas. Napiergrass biofuel types are being developed to have reduced invasion risk, but these might be cultivated in areas where naturalized populations of this species are already present. The successful management of napiergrass biofuel plantations will therefore require techniques to monitor for escaped biofuels as distinguished from existing naturalized populations. Here we used 20 microsatellite DNA markers developed for pearl millet to genotype 16 entries of napiergrass, including naturalized populations and accessions selected for biofuel traits. Use of the markers showed a clear genetic separation between the biofuel types and naturalized entries and revealed naturalized populations undergoing genetic isolation by distance. These findings demonstrated the utility of microsatellite marker transfer in the development of an important tool for managing the invasion risk of a potential biofuel crop.

The effects of arbuscular mycorrhizal inoculations and cotyledon removal on early seedling growth of Pongamia pinnata

Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre, a fast-growing oil-seed-producing tree legume, has the ability to grow on wastelands. It can be utilized for biofuel plantation on such lands. The preconditioning of young seedlings during the early stage of development with efficient arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) confers several benefits enhancing the possibility of their establishment in fields after outplanting from nurseries. However, before recommending these fungi for inoculation, the suitable AMF species must be identified. Therefore, to determine the potential AMF species, 9 purified fungi (isolated from different sites) were tested for their growth promotion activity. The inoculated fungi were not able to increase seedling growth. Some fungi reduced growth, which was attributed to more utilization of carbon by fungal symbiont. Development of fine roots was delayed up to 30 days after sowing and hence their colonization by AMF inoculants. This could be due to the large amount of nutrients stored in cotyledons of large P. pinnata seeds. Removal of cotyledons significantly reduced seedling growth and plants showed some extent of dependency on AMF inoculants. Thus, it was concluded that AMF inoculations should enhance biomass of P. pinnata only after depletion of metabolic reserves in its cotyledons and such mycorrhizal seedlings can be utilized for biofuel plantation.

Seed Source Variation and Biochemical Characterizations of Pongamia pinnata Genetic Resources

Studies on Seed source variation and biochemical characterizations of ten selected Pongamia pinnata genetic sources were carried out at Forest College and Research Institute, Mettupalayam in the Year 2009-10. The studies revealed that among the selected seed sources, Karamadai seed source shows superiority over others in terms of seed length (24.45cm), seed breadth (15.46cm), seed length to breadth ratio (1.90 cm), hundred seed weight (144.30g) and oil content in (24.56%).The values for saponification and Iodine number of most sources fell within the acceptable limits of Indian and international biodiesel standards. Only the free fatty acid percentage and acid value exceeded the permissible limits. But this does not subdue the utility of these seed sources which exhibited superiority in terms of growth, physico-chemical attributes and yield promoting their deployment for large scale biofuel plantation establishment

Can Tanzania realise rural development through biofuel plantations? Insights from the study in Rufiji District

Biofuel is a fast growing sector in Tanzania. Foreign and domestic companies are acquiring big portions of land, some up to 440,000 hectares. It is believed that the country has a reserve of 88 million hectares for agriculture. The government is committed to promoting the sector. But what are the implications of biofuel plantations for rural development in Tanzania? This is an area of inquiry which has not received adequate attention. The main objective of the study was to investigate whether biofuel plantations will have any significant impact on rural development in Tanzania, using the case of Rufiji District. The choice of the district was fourfold. One, it has a considerable number of potential biofuel investors. Two, a high proportion of the investors intend to use the vertical integration model of production, processing and marketing. Three, the district is dominated by smallholder farmers, who are poor with chronic food insecurity. Four, Rufiji district is rich in biodiversity and natural resources. The findings from this study will reflect the likely impact of biofuel plantations on rural development as the selected district represents the characteristics of many rural areas of Tanzania. A total of 161 respondents were selected randomly for interview. There were also consultations with village governments, non-government organisations, policy makers and researchers. The findings show both high expectations and concerns. The respondents anticipate benefiting from employment, income-generating opportunities, access to markets for crops, and improved social services. More men than female respondents are hoping to become out-growers. However, male respondents in particular were concerned about land grabbing while for women it was about food security, water use conflicts and whether they will be able to access clean energy. The lack of a biofuel policy and legal framework as well as poor rural infrastructure may undermine the realisation of biofuel benefits.

Privileged Biofuels, Marginalized Indigenous Peoples

Biofuels development has assumed an important role in integrating Indigenous peoples and other marginalized populations in the production of biofuels for global consumption. By combining the theories of commoditization and the environmental sociology of networks and flows, the author analyzed emerging trends and possible changes in institutions and behaviors brought about by the introduction of biofuels as a development option on ancestral lands. Using the Indonesian oil palm and the Philippine Jatropha experiences, the author argues that although there are efforts to integrate smallholder systems to the global integrated biofuels network, the effects of commoditization continue to undermine the more sustainable, less commoditized agricultural practices of Indigenous peoples. Indigenous peoples and their traditional agricultural practices are at risk of being either phased out from or eventually transformed by the global integrated biofuels network to accommodate large-scale, consolidated biofuel plantation systems. However, there are also indications that persistent criticisms of and enduring reforms in the global integrated biofuels network challenge the future of highly commoditized biofuels. This suggests that the coevolutionary trajectory of both highly commoditized biofuels and noncommoditized Indigenous agricultural practices remains uncertain.

Drivers causing decline of mangrove in West-Central Africa: a review

Mangrove forest ecosystems are critically threatened in West-Central Africa due to minimal management and policy efforts. This is partly caused by insufficient knowledge about the economic and ecological value of mangrove ecosystems, which provide important ecosystem services, such as fish, flood prevention, erosion prevention, water regulation, and timber products. A strategy to improve mangrove ecosystem management would be to improve public understanding of the ecosystem's values. We studied these drivers on a regional scale, using socio-economic and grey literature and consultations with experts, thereby focusing on the period from 1980 to 2006. Wood harvesting, conversion of mangroves for agriculture, and bio-fuel plantations were important drivers of mangrove forest change. Coastal development is the most important direct driver of mangrove forest change, especially between 2000 and 2006, a period that coincides with large oil discoveries in the region. About 60% of all industries within the region are located near the coast, which is expected to attract about 50 million people by 2025. Future policies should target the risks of declining mangrove ecosystems in West-Central Africa. This requires focusing on adaptive strategies, reviewing existing coastal and marine ecosystem policies, and developing an integrated coastal management strategy for the region.

Jatropha production on wastelands in India: opportunities and trade‐offs for soil and water management at the watershed scale

AbstractBiofuel production from feedstocks grown on wastelands is considered a means of addressing concerns about climate change and improving energy security while at the same time providing an additional source of income for the land users. The establishment of biomass plantations on wastelands is likely to affect local livelihoods and can affect surrounding ecosystems by influencing hydrologic flows and processes such as erosion. We present an assessment of Jatropha plantation establishment on wastelands, using the ArcSWAT modeling tool. The assessment was made for a wasteland located in the Velchal watershed, Andhra Pradesh, India, which recently was converted to a biofuel plantation with Jatropha. The previous land use, in this case grazing, could continue in the Jatropha plantations. Several desirable effects occurred as a result of the land‐use conversion: non‐productive soil evaporation was reduced as a larger share of the rainfall was channeled to productive plant transpiration and groundwater recharge, and at the same time a more stable (less erosive) runoff resulted in reduced soil erosion and improved downstream water conditions. A win‐win situation between improved land productivity and soil carbon content was observed for the Jatropha plantations. On the other hand, the results indicate that at the sub‐basin scale, reductions in runoff generation as a result of large‐scale conversion of wastelands to Jatropha cropping may pose problems to downstream water users and ecosystems. From a livelihoods perspective, Jatropha production was generally positive, creating a complementary source of income to the farmers, thus strengthening the resilience of the local community. In the future, the potential gain from Jatropha cropping is expected to increase as cropping systems improve and growing biofuel markets result in better conditions for biofuel producers. © 2011 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd