Mountain Biodiversity Research Articles

The neglected giant Tchen-Ngo Liou:The enlightenment of his dynamic geobotany theory to current studies in vegetation ecology and biodiversity.

Prof. Tchen-Ngo Liou is one of the founders of China's botany, geobotany, and forest ecology. Theory of dynamic geobotany, established by Prof. Liou, can track back from his doctoral work in Alps in France, and was developed based on his long-term field works in northeast, southeast, north, northeast parts of China, India, North Korea and other regions. In the short course on dynamics geobotany in 1962, he gave a series of lectures which formed a synthesized system. The key elements of this theory are the comprehensive review and critical thinking on climax theory of vegetation science and community succession. Prof. Liou has applied this theory into the establishment of artificial vegetation, the improvement of natural vegetation, forest harvesting and regeneration, and the prevent and control of desertification in China. Here, we gave a short summary about this theory, and discussed its potential influence on important topics in vegetation ecology and biodiversity science, including mountain biodiversity, natural forest conservation, forest management, global change, and vegetation classification.

Woody plant communities in different land management types and implications on mountain biodiversity conservation in central Ethiopia

The prominence of mountains as social-ecological systems and the need for sustainable mountain development have increasingly been recognized in global agendas and international conventions. This study aims to investigate woody plant diversity, composition, and population structure in two different land management types: lands managed by the Wanchi Ecotourism Association (WETA) and non-WETA members at the slopes of Wanchi Mountain. Trees and shrubs with diameter at breast height (DBH) ≥ 5 cm were recorded from 20 m by 20 m plots and those with DBH<5 cm were counted within sub-plots of 10 m by 10 m. Tree seedlings were recorded from five 3 m by 3 m sub-sub-plots. The quasi-Poisson generalized linear model with a log-link function was used to analyze the richness of woody species and their association with environmental variables. Non-metric multidimensional scaling with Bray-Curtis distance in two-dimensional space was employed for the woody species composition. Tree species population structure was analyzed using tree diameter distribution classes. The study identified 104 woody plants belonging to 82 genera and 52 families. Woody species richness in WETA-managed lands is significantly (P=0.009) greater than that of non-WETA-managed lands. The study found that woody species richness significantly declined with increasing anthropogenic disturbance (P<0.001) and slope (P<0.001) in both WETA and non-WETA-managed land. Woody species richness also showed negative associations with aspect. The tree species in both the land management types revealed nearly similar population structures. The study highlighted the importance of sustainable land management practices such as ecotourism in areas of significant natural endowments like that of the Wanchi Mountain. Such practices can guide more sustainable mountain biodiversity conservation while realizing appropriate local livelihood improvement strategies.

Toward a set of essential biodiversity variables for assessing change in mountains globally

Abstract Mountain regions harbor unique and rich biodiversity, forming an important part of our global life support system. This rich biodiversity underpins the ecological intactness and functioning of mountain ecosystems, which are imperative for the provision of key ecosystem services. A considerable amount of data are required to assess ecological intactness and ecosystem functioning and, given the profound anthropogenic pressures many mountain regions are being subjected to, are urgently needed. However, data on mountain biodiversity remain lacking. The essential biodiversity variables (EBVs) framework can help focus efforts related to detecting, investigating, predicting, and managing global biodiversity change, but has not yet been considered in the context of mountains. Here, we review key biological processes and physical phenomena that strongly influence mountain biodiversity and ecosystems and elucidate their associations with potential mountain EBVs. We identify seven EBVs of highest relevance for tracking and understanding the most critical drivers and responses of mountain biodiversity change. If they are implemented, the selected EBVs will contribute useful information to inform management and policy interventions seeking to halt mountain biodiversity loss and maintain functional mountain ecosystems.

Integrating genomics and biogeography to unravel the origin of a mountain biota: The case of a reptile endemicity hotspot in Arabia.

Advances in genomics have greatly enhanced our understanding of mountain biodiversity, providing new insights into the complex and dynamic mechanisms that drive the formation of mountain biotas. These span from broad biogeographic patterns to population dynamics and adaptations to these environments. However, significant challenges remain in integrating large-scale and fine-scale findings to develop a comprehensive understanding of mountain biodiversity. One significant challenge is the lack of genomic data, particularly in historically understudied arid regions where reptiles are a particularly diverse vertebrate group. In the present study, we assembled a de novo genome-wide SNP dataset for the complete endemic reptile fauna of a mountain range (19 described species with more than 600 specimens sequenced), and integrated state-of-the-art biogeographic analyses at the population, species, and community level. Thus, we provide a holistic integration of how a whole endemic reptile community has originated, diversified and dispersed through a mountain system. Our results show that reptiles independently colonized the Hajar Mountains of southeastern Arabia 11 times. After colonization, species delimitation methods suggest high levels of within-mountain diversification, supporting up to 49 deep lineages. This diversity is strongly structured following local topography, with the highest peaks acting as a broad barrier to gene flow among the entire community. Interestingly, orogenic events do not seem key drivers of the biogeographic history of reptiles in this system. Instead, past climatic events seem to have had a major role in this community assemblage. We observe an increase of vicariant events from Late Pliocene onwards, coinciding with an unstable climatic period of rapid shifts between hyper-arid and semiarid conditions that led to the ongoing desertification of Arabia. We conclude that paleoclimate, and particularly extreme aridification, acted as a main driver of diversification in arid mountain systems which is tangled with the generation of highly adapted endemicity. Overall, our study does not only provide a valuable contribution to understanding the evolution of mountain biodiversity, but also offers a flexible and scalable approach that can be reproduced into any taxonomic group and at any discrete environment.

Two decades of increasing functional and phylogenetic richness in a mountaintop flora in central Norway

AbstractQuestionsAnalysing how multiple facets of biodiversity vary across space and time can help to predict the vulnerability of mountaintop floras to future environmental changes. Here we addressed the following questions: (a) Are elevational patterns of mountaintop plant diversity consistent across taxonomy, function and phylogeny? (b) How have the taxonomic, functional and phylogenetic dimensions of mountaintop plant communities changed over the past two decades? (c) Is the magnitude of these temporal trends dependent on elevation?LocationDovrefjell, central Norway.MethodsThe floristic composition of four mountaintops, spread across an elevational gradient from the tree line to the uppermost margins of vascular plant life, was surveyed every 7 years between 2001 and 2022. Six metrics of taxonomic, functional and phylogenetic richness and differentiation were calculated for each mountaintop and survey. Using these data, we assessed how richness and differentiation metrics varied over space (across the elevational gradient) and over time (between surveys).ResultsAll diversity metrics decreased towards higher elevations, except phylogenetic differentiation which increased significantly by 7% per 100 m elevational gain. Taxonomic richness remained virtually stable between 2001 and 2022, whereas phylogenetic richness increased by 7.5% per decade. Functional richness also increased, but mainly on the lowest mountaintop, by 17% per decade. No significant temporal trends in taxonomic, functional and phylogenetic differentiation were detected.ConclusionsOur findings underpin rearrangements in the functional and phylogenetic structure of mountain plant communities over the past two decades that cannot be predicted from trends in taxonomic richness alone. This highlights the necessity to look beyond species richness and consider multiple facets of biodiversity when studying environmental change impacts on mountain biodiversity and ecosystem functioning.

The joint effects of local, climatic, and spatial variables determine soil oribatid mite community assembly along a temperate forest elevational gradient.

Numerous factors influence mountain biodiversity variation across elevational gradients and recognizing the relative importance is vital for understanding species distribution mechanisms. We examined oribatid mites at nine elevations (from 600 to 2200 m a.s.l) and four vegetation types from mixed coniferous and broad-leaved forests to alpine tundra on Changbai Mountain. We assessed the contribution of environmental factors (climatic and local factors) and spatial processes (geographic or elevation distances) to oribatid mite community assembly and identified 59 oribatid mite species from 38 families and 51 genera. With increasing elevation, species richness and the Shannon index declined significantly, whereas abundance followed a hump-shaped trend. Soil TP, NH4 +-N, MAT, MAP, and elevation were the critical variables shaping oribatid mite communities based on random forest analysis. Moreover, environmental and spatial factors, and oribatid mite communities were significantly correlated based on Mantel and partial Mantel tests. Local characteristics (3.9%), climatic factors (1.9%), and spatial filtering (8.8%) played crucial roles in determining oribatid mite communities across nine elevational bands (based on variation partitioning analyses of abundance data). Within the same vegetation types, spatial processes had relatively little effects, with local characteristics the dominant drivers of oribatid mite community variation. Environmental and spatial filters together shape oribatid mite community assembly and their relative roles varied with elevation and vegetation type. These findings are crucial for the conservation, restoration, and management of Changbai mountain ecosystems in the context of climate change, along with the prediction of future vertical biotic gradient pattern evolution.

Multi-taxon species richness representation within national nature reserves is associated with spatial features, human disturbance and environmental factors in mountains region

The Humboldt’s enigma has continued for many centuries, A multitude of studies have delved into various potential reasons for this richness—from topography and climate to community succession—yet a singular, all-encompassing theory for species richness across multiple taxa in mountain ecosystems remains elusive. In this research, we explored the causes of species richness in mountain multiple-taxa in terms of spatial attributes of protected areas, human disturbance and environmental factors. Initiating our study, we compiled a comprehensive database of all national nature reserves (NNRs) situated in the karst regions of Guizhou province. This was achieved through an extensive multidisciplinary field survey in recent years, resulting in a collection of 40,570 species records. Subsequently, we discerned a complex interplay between species richness, spatial attributes, human disturbance, and environmental factors, which collectively account for over 80 % of the observed variations in mountain biodiversity. Our findings revealed several intricate relationships: Shape index and fragmentation positively influenced the richness of insect, animal, and seed plant species. Conversely, anthropogenic alterations and nighttime light negatively impacted the diversity of amphibians, reptiles, and mammals. Interestingly, we discovered a significant positive association between the richness of fungi, mosses, and ferns and the variables of soil texture and soil water, demonstrating the importance of soils in karst for maintaining biodiversity. To conclude, we evaluated conservation strategies in mountainous regions. It is imperative that the spatial configuration of protected areas be refined to alleviate the detrimental effects of human disturbance. Furthermore, conservation efforts should be customized to the unique climatic and geographic conditions found locally.

Effects of environment and genotype-by-environment interaction on phenotype of Rorippa elata (Brassicaceae), an endemic alpine plant in the Hengduan mountains

Abstract Global climate change poses a severe threat to mountain biodiversity. Phenotypic plasticity and local adaptation are two common strategies for alpine plant to cope with such change. They may facilitate organismal adaptation to contrasting environments, depending on the influences of the environment or genotype or their interacted effects. In this study, we use an endemic alpine plant (Rorippa elata) in the Hengduan mountains (HDM) to unravel its phenotypic basis of adaptation strategy and evaluate the relative contributions of environment and genotype to its phenotype. We transplanted 37 genotypes of R. elata into two common gardens across low and high elevations (2800 vs. 3800 m) during 2021–2022. Nine fitness-related traits were measured, including flowering probability and glucosinolates (GS) content. We estimated the environmental or genotypic contributions to the phenotype and identified the main environmental components. Our results revealed that both environment and genotype-by-environment interactions contributed to the phenotypes of R. elata. Latitudinal heterogeneity was identified as a key factor that explained 24% of the total phenotypic variation. In particular, genotypes of the northern HDM showed significantly higher plasticity in flowering probability than those of the southern HDM. Furthermore, within the southern HDM, GS content indicated local adaptation to herbivory stresses for R. elata genotypes along elevations. In conclusion, our results suggest that R. elata may have adapted to the alpine environment through species-level plasticity or regional-level local adaptation. These processes were shaped by either complex topography or interactions between genotype and mountain environments. Our study provides empirical evidence on the adaptation of alpine plants.

Island biogeography theory and the habitat heterogeneity jointly explain global patterns of Rhododendron diversity

Mountain biodiversity is of great importance to biogeography and ecology. However, it is unclear what ecological and evolutionary processes best explain the generation and maintenance of its high levels of species diversity. In this study, we determined which of six common hypotheses (e.g., climate hypotheses, habitat heterogeneity hypothesis and island biogeography theory) best explain global patterns of species diversity in Rhododendron. We found that Rhododendron diversity patterns were most strongly explained by proxies of island biogeography theory (i.e., mountain area) and habitat heterogeneity (i.e., elevation range). When we examined other relationships important to island biogeography theory, we found that the planimetric area and the volume of mountains were positively correlated with the Rhododendron diversity, whereas the ‘mountains-to-mainland’ distance was negatively correlated with Rhododendron diversity and shared species. Our findings demonstrate that Rhododendron diversity can be explained by island biogeography theory and habitat heterogeneity, and mountains can be regarded as islands which supported island biogeography theory.

Global reduction of snow cover in ski areas under climate change.

Ongoing climate change substantially alters snowfall patterns with severe but diverging consequences for global ski areas. A global assessment as well as the investigation of potential implications for mountain ecosystems is currently lacking. We quantify future trends in natural snow cover days under different climate change scenarios until 2100 in seven major global skiing regions and discuss implications for mountainous biodiversity by analysing how natural snow cover days relate to regional human population density. Within all major skiing regions, snow cover days are projected to decrease substantially under every assessed climate change scenario. Thirteen percent of all current ski areas are projected to completely lose natural annual snow cover and one fifth will experience a reduction of more than 50% by 2071-2100 relative to historic baselines. Future skiable areas will concentrate in less populated areas, towards continental regions and inner parts of the mountain ranges. As skiable areas will be located at greater distances to highly populated areas in the future, we expect an expansion of infrastructure and increasing intervening actions (i.e., artificial snowmaking, slope grooming) to prolong snow duration. Our results are concerning for both the recreational and economic value of skiing as well as for mountain biodiversity since vulnerable high-altitude species might be threatened by space reductions with ski area expansion.

Thermophilization and reshuffling of montane leaf beetle communities over a two‐decade period

AbstractGiven the sensitivity of mountain biodiversity to human pressure, it is essential to quantify changes in montane biological communities and contrast them with expectations based on potential drivers of change. This need is particularly pressing for biological groups representing important but little‐studied fractions of biodiversity, such as insects. We analyze the temporal changes (between 1998 and 2015) of leaf beetle communities in an altitudinal gradient in the Sierra de Ancares (NW Spain). Our results show temporal changes in the composition of local communities, with a tendency to assemblage thermophilization, as well as a homogenization of the spatial turnover pattern, mostly driven by an increased similarity between communities at the lower and intermediate altitudes. These temporal changes in community composition and in the spatial structure of biodiversity were associated with upward shifts of the upper altitudinal limit of warm‐adapted species and with downward shifts of the lower altitudinal limit of cold‐adapted species. While this upward shift is consistent with expectations of climate change effects, the observed downward shift suggests a land‐use change effect. Our results point to the joint effect of multiple factors (climate and land‐use change) behind temporal changes of these leaf beetle communities, which result in compositional reorganization and biotic homogenization, rather than a mere coherent displacement toward higher altitudes. More generally, we show that understanding temporal change of biodiversity requires assessing multiple community‐level metrics (e.g., variation in assemblage composition and/or changes in spatial turnover) for the detection of tendencies among the species‐specific signals (e.g., altitudinal range shifts).

Endophytic fungi from Himalayan silver birch as potential source of plant growth enhancement and secondary metabolite production.

Mountain biodiversity is under unparalleled pressure due to climate change, necessitating in-depth research on high-altitude plant's microbial associations which are crucial for plant survival under stress conditions. Realizing that high-altitude tree line species of Himalaya are completely unexplored with respect to the microbial association, the present study aimed to elucidate plant growth promoting and secondary metabolite producing potential of culturable endophytic fungi of Himalayan silver birch (Betula utilis D. Don). ITS region sequencing revealed that the fungal isolates belong to Penicillium species, Pezicula radicicola, and Paraconiothyrium archidendri. These endophytes were psychrotolerant in nature with the potential to produce extracellular lytic activities. The endophytes showed plant growth promoting (PGP) traits like phosphorus solubilization and production of siderophore, indole acetic acid (IAA), and ACC deaminase. The fungal extracts also exhibited antagonistic potential against bacterial pathogens. Furthermore, the fungal extracts were found to be a potential source of bioactive compounds including the host-specific compound-betulin. Inoculation with fungal suspension improved seed germination and biomass of soybean and maize crops under net house conditions. In vitro PGP traits of the endophytes, supported by net house experiments, indicated that fungal association may support the growth and survival of the host in extreme cold conditions.

Volcanoes, evolving landscapes, and biodiversity in Neotropical mountains

Volcanoes, evolving landscapes, and biodiversity in Neotropical mountains

The interaction between temperature and precipitation on the potential distribution range of Betula ermanii in the alpine treeline ecotone on the Changbai Mountain

Alpine treeline ecotones are highly sensitive to climate warming. The low temperature-determined alpine treeline is expected to shift upwards in response to global warming. However, little is known about how temperature interacts with other important factors to influence the distribution range of tree species within and beyond the alpine treeline ecotone. Hence, we used a GF-2 satellite image, along with bioclimatic and topographic variables, to develop an ensemble suitable habitat model based on the species distribution modeling algorithms in Biomod2. We investigated the distribution of suitable habitats for B. ermanii under three climate change scenarios (i.e., low (SSP126), moderate (SSP370) and extreme (SSP585) future emission trajectories) between two consecutive time periods (i.e., current–2055, and 2055–2085). By 2055, the potential distribution range of B. ermanii will expand under all three climate scenarios. The medium and high suitable areas will decline under SSP370 and SSP585 scenarios from 2055 to 2085. Moreover, under the three climate scenarios, the uppermost altitudes of low suitable habitat will rise to 2,329 ​m a.s.l., while the altitudes of medium and high suitable habitats will fall to 2,201 and 2,051 ​m a.s.l. by 2085, respectively. Warming promotes the expansion of B. ermanii distribution range in Changbai Mountain, and this expansion will be modified by precipitation as climate warming continues. This interaction between temperature and precipitation plays a significant role in shaping the potential distribution range of B. ermanii in the alpine treeline ecotone. This study reveals the link between environmental factors, habitat distribution, and species distribution in the alpine treeline ecotone, providing valuable insights into the impacts of climate change on high-elevation vegetation, and contributing to mountain biodiversity conservation and sustainable development.

Responses of taxonomic and functional diversity of soil mites to altitudinal changes in forest ecosystems of Lyuliang Mountains, Shanxi, China

The altitudinal gradient pattern of mountain biodiversity and its formation mechanism are hot topics in ecological research. The altitudinal variations of belowground invertebrates are less understood than aboveground plants and animals. With soil mites as the model soil animals, we investigated their distribution patterns from 1318 m to 2500 m above sea level in three mountains of Lyuliang Mountains based on species diversity and functional diversity. We used soil pH, total N, total P, total K, and organic matter content to identify potential drivers of soil mite communities and diversity along the altitudinal gradient. A total of 715 soil mites were collected, belonging to 3 orders, 27 families, 28 genera, and 29 species. Phthiracarus clemens, Geolaelaps praesternalis and Diapterobates humeralis were dominant mites. Non-metric multidimensional scaling showed that soil mites community composition varied significantly among different altitudes due to Epilohmannia ovata predominated in high altitude and P. clemens predominated in middle altitude. There were significant differences in individual density of soil mites among different altitudes. The Margalef, Shannon, and Simpson indices followed a unimodal distribution pattern along the altitudinal gradient. Functional richness and functional evenness showed a unimodal distribution pattern along the altitudinal gradient, while other functional diversity indices changed little with altitude. The RDA results indicated that total K and soil pH were the major drivers for the variations in soil mite communities. The Pielou index of soil mites was significantly positively correlated with soil pH, while functional evenness was negatively correlated with altitude. Individual density, species number, Margalef, Simpson and Shannon indices were significantly positively correlated with functional richness index. Species diversity and functional diversity of soil mites varied differently with altitude. In the future, we should strengthen long-term monitoring and dynamic functional properties of soil mites and the community assembly to deeply understand the relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem functions.

Elevational homogenization of mountain parasitoids across six decades.

Elevational gradients are characterized by strong environmental changes within small geographical distances, providing important insights on the response of biological communities to climate change. Mountain biodiversity is particularly sensitive to climate change, given the limited capacity to colonize new areas and the competition from upshifting lowland species. Knowledge on the impact of climate change on mountain insect communities is patchy, but elevation is known to influence parasitic interactions which control insect communities and functions within ecosystems. We analyzed a European dataset of bristle flies, a parasitoid group which regulates insect herbivory in both managed and natural ecosystems. Our dataset spans six decades and multiple elevational bands, and we found marked elevational homogenization in the host specialization of bristle fly species through time. The proportion of specialized parasitoids has increased by ca. 70% at low elevations, from 17 to 29%, and has decreased by ca. 20% at high elevations, from 48 to 37%. As a result, the strong elevational gradient in bristle fly specialization observed in the 1960s has become much flatter over time. As climate warming is predicted to accelerate, the disappearance of specialized parasitoids from high elevations might become even faster. This parasitoid homogenization can reshape the ecological function of mountain insect communities, increasing the risk of herbivory outbreak at high elevations. Our results add to the mounting evidence that symbiotic species might be especially at risk from climate change: Monitoring the effects of these changes is urgently needed to define effective conservation strategies for mountain biodiversity.

Biodiversity responses to land-use change in the equatorial Andes

Land-use change is a primary driver of biodiversity loss. Tropical ecosystems face rapid conversion rates due to the encroachment of agricultural lands and supply needs for goods and services from an increasing population and changing market demands. Measuring the effect of land conversion on species diversity is challenging due to incomplete and uneven knowledge of different taxonomical groups. Here, we contrast different metrics for measuring biodiversity loss across three land-use typologies: secondary forest, agroforestry, and monoculture for five taxonomic groups: birds, frogs, fish, dung beetles, and macroinvertebrates in the Andean piedmont forests of the western equatorial Andes. Albeit our limited and uneven sample in space and time, we found that rarity, Non-Metric Multidimensional Scaling, and Multinomial Classification Model (i.e., classifications of habitat specialists and generalists) constitute a more sensitive set of indicators to assess land-use change impacts on tropical mountain biodiversity compared to classical metrics. Likewise, our results showed that land-use intensification influenced community assemblages in the five taxonomic groups. These non-classical biodiversity metrics can provide better insight into the effect of land conversion on these highly biodiverse ecosystems composed of many rare species.

Altitudinal shifting of major forest tree species in Italian mountains under climate change

Climate change has profound implications for global ecosystems, particularly in mountainous regions where species distribution and composition are highly sensitive to changing environmental conditions. Understanding the potential impacts of climate change on native forest species is crucial for effective conservation and management strategies. Despite numerous studies on climate change impacts, there remains a need to investigate the future dynamics of climate suitability for key native forest species, especially in specific mountainous sections. This study aims to address this knowledge gap by examining the potential shifts in altitudinal range and suitability for forest species in Italy's mountainous regions. By using species distribution models, through MaxEnt we show the divergent impacts among species and scenarios, with most species experiencing a contraction in their altitudinal range of suitability whereas others show the potential to extend beyond the current tree line. The Northern and North-Eastern Apennines exhibit the greatest and most widespread impacts on all species, emphasizing their vulnerability. Our findings highlight the complex and dynamic nature of climate change impacts on forest species in Italy. While most species are projected to experience a contraction in their altitudinal range, the European larch in the Alpine region and the Turkey oak in the Apennines show potential gains and could play significant roles in maintaining wooded populations. The tree line is generally expected to shift upward, impacting the European beech—a keystone species in the Italian mountain environment—negatively in the Alpine arc and Northern Apennines, while showing good future suitability above 1,500 meters in the Central and Southern Apennines. Instead, the Maritime pine emerges as a promising candidate for the future of the Southern Apennines. The projected impacts on mountain biodiversity, particularly in terms of forest population composition, suggest the need for comprehensive conservation and management strategies. The study emphasizes the importance of using high-resolution climate data and considering multiple factors and scenarios when assessing species vulnerability. The findings have implications at the local, regional, and national levels, emphasizing the need for continued efforts in producing reliable datasets and forecasts to inform targeted conservation efforts and adaptive management strategies in the face of climate change.

Go or grow? Feedbacks between moving slopes and shifting plants in high mountain environments

High mountains are climate change hotspots. Quickly rising temperatures trigger vegetation shifts such as upslope migration, possibly threatening mountain biodiversity. At the same time, mountain slopes are becoming increasingly unstable due to degrading permafrost and changing rain and snowfall regimes, which favour slope movements such as rockfall and debris flows. Slope movements can limit plant colonization, while, at the same time, plant colonization can stabilize moving slopes. Thus, we here propose that response of high mountain environments to climate change depends on a ‘biogeomorphic balance’ between slope movement intensity and the trait-dependent ability of mountain plants to survive and stabilize slopes. We envision three possible scenarios of biogeomorphic balance: (1) Intensifying slope movements limit vegetation shifts and thus amplify instability. (2) Shifting ecosystem engineer species reduce slope movement and facilitate shifts for less movement-adapted species. (3) Trees and tall shrubs shifting on stable slopes limit slope instability but decrease biodiversity. Previous geomorphic, ecological and palaeoecological studies support all three scenarios. Given differences in ecologic and geomorphic response rates to climate change, as well as high environmental heterogeneity and elevational gradients in mountain environments, we posit that future biogeomorphic balances will be variable and heterogeneous in time and space. To further unravel future biogeomorphic balances, we propose three new research directions for joint research of mountain geomorphologists and ecologists, using advancing field measurement, remote sensing and modelling techniques. Recognizing high mountains as ‘biogeomorphic ecosystems’ will help to better safeguard mountain infrastructure, lives and livelihoods of millions of people around the world.

Mountain Biodiversity, Species Distribution and Ecosystem Functioning in a Changing World

Mountains encompass more than 30% of all land and 23% of the Earth’s forests, with high levels of biodiversity and endemism, and they support diverse habitats and refuges for approximately 85% of amphibian, bird, and mammal species [...]