Biodiversity Hotspot Research Articles

Roadkill as the primary cause of death of the kodkod, pampas cat and puma in the biodiversity hotspot of central Chile

Abstract Central Chile is recognized as a biodiversity hotspot, inhabited by four wild cat species: kodkod (Leopardus guigna), pampas cat (Leopardus colocola), Andean cat (Leopardus jacobita), and puma (Puma concolor). However, threats to these felids in this region remains poorly documented. This study investigates the primary causes of wild cat mortality in central Chile from 2012 to 2024, compiling mortality records categorized by species, political region, land use type, and year. Mortality events were gathered for three species, but we did not find any record for the Andean cat. Roadkill was the predominant cause of death, followed by dog attacks, drowning incidents, and hunting. Statistical analyses suggested significant associations among felid species and political regions, species and cause of death, and regions and cause of death. Our findings underscore the urgent need to mitigate human-induced threats, especially road collisions, and highlight critical knowledge gaps regarding the Andean cat. Future research should prioritize expanding data collection to inform targeted conservation strategies.

Mapping the research framework and key trends of coral reefs in the South China Sea

The South China Sea, a key biodiversity hotspot in the Central Indo-Pacific, hosts a rich array of coral reef species and marine life but faces growing threats from climate change and human activities. This study systematically analyzes coral reef research in the region using a bibliometric analysis of records from the Web of Science Core Collection. The analysis highlights the diverse roles of contributing countries and their collaborations, with China emerging as a significant contributor to the regional scientific output. Our findings categorize the research into five principal themes through text mining and bibliographic coupling: (1) fundamental physical-biological interactions within reef systems, (2) biodiversity and symbiotic relationships in response to environmental stress, (3) climatic influences and the adaptive responses of reef systems, (4) conservation strategies and management practices for reef resilience, and (5) remote sensing and algorithmic approaches for reef mapping and monitoring. The discussion addresses regional challenges, outlines the identified research framework, and details key trends in South China Sea coral reef research, thereby providing essential information to guide future development and conservation efforts.

Spatial patterns of above-ground biomass in tropical alpine páramo ecosystems using allometric models and LiDAR data

ContextPáramos, high-elevation alpine ecosystems found in the northern Andes, are a biodiversity hotspot and play a crucial role in climate change mitigation due to their carbon storage capacity. Above-ground biomass (AGB) serves as a key indicator of ecosystem health and carbon sequestration potential. Accurate estimates of above-ground biomass are essential for understanding the variability of carbon storage across different páramo vegetation types, successional stages and degradation impacts supporting the design of effective conservation and management strategies.ObjectivesWe analyzed the main patterns of AGB across different vegetation types and plant growth forms combining methods of direct field measurements and UAV-LiDAR. This study was conducted into conserved area named El Cocuy National Natural Park, within Páramos ecosystems in the northeast of the Colombian Andes.MethodsWe measured the AGB of the different plant growth forms and related that to relevant allometric traits by using simple linear models. Using the allometric equations we estimated the AGB of 30 plots in areas dominated by different páramo vegetation types. Airborne LiDAR data was collected from these plots and canopy height and density metrics were processed to determine landscape-level above-ground biomass calibrated with the ground measurements.ResultsWe found that plant height, basal diameter, and leaf area explained AGB variation for the different plant growth forms. We selected models with canopy height model (CHM) as predictor, to explain above-ground biomass at the landscape level. Allometric and LiDAR derived models showed páramo values ranging from 3 to 11 Mg C ha−1.ConclusionsOur results demonstrated that it is possible to understand above ground carbon accumulation patterns at the landscape level by combining direct and indirect methods, such as allometric equations and LiDAR data, in areas representing the heterogeneity of páramo vegetation. This study is pioneering in providing information for non-forest carbon reservoirs and the impacts of human actions on the dynamics of the AGB, which are crucial to reach national greenhouse gases emission targets.

Trophic transfer of heavy metals in a mangrove ecosystem: Bioaccumulation patterns and ecological risks in waterbirds.

Trophic transfer of heavy metals in a mangrove ecosystem: Bioaccumulation patterns and ecological risks in waterbirds.

Community based forest management enhances forest condition of village forests within the eastern Afromontane biodiversity hotspot

Despite the advent of Community Based Forest Management (CBFM) more than three decades ago our understanding of its impacts on forest condition is limited. Here we test whether CBFM enhances forest condition of two (Litwang’ata and Intake) Village Land Forest Reserves (VLFRs) within the eastern Afromontane biodiversity hotspot. Remote Sensing and GIS methods triangulated with Key Informant Interviews (KIIs) and ground truthing were employed to assess the spatial–temporal land cover changes before (i.e. 2019) and after (i.e. 2024) the introduction of CBFM. Results show that agricultural land decreased in Intake from 26 hectares (ha) to 1 ha corresponding to the decrease of 95.2% whereas it decreased from 3 to 2 ha equivalent to the decrease of − 55.5% in Litwang’ata forest post CBFM introduction. Open woodland decreased for the two VLFRs at the expense of closed woodland for Intake and at the cost of grass/shrub land for Litwang’ata. Closed woodland increased by 1318 ha equivalent to the cover change of 39.8% for Intake forest whereas it slightly decreased by 38 ha corresponding to the cover change of − 3.7% five years post CBFM inception. Overall, agricultural land, grass/shrub land and open woodland decreased with absolute land covers of 26 ha, 199 ha, 1054 ha, respectively. On the other hand, closed woodland overall increased with absolute land cover of 1280 ha. Change in forest governance by devolving ownership and management to local communities has the potential to enhance the recovery and protection of village forests within the eastern Afromontane biodiversity hotspot.

A window to the past and future aquaculture in the Gulf of California: the abundant times of 'Meyibó'.

The Gulf of California has been widely recognized as a global marine biodiversity hotspot. For centuries, the use of aquatic resources in the region has provided food and employment to different groups of people and communities. With demand for seafood continuing to grow, domestically and globally, the pressure on these resources will increase. This raises questions about how community, government and industry can balance socioeconomic and ecological demands, including the need to meet multiple development goals, such as conservation and biodiversity targets, mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions and greater equality. This article describes the long-term impact that different human cultures have had along the coast of the Baja peninsula, with a focus on bivalve species that once created productive and critical habitats such as pearl oyster beds and reefs. Like many places worldwide these habitats are now considered to be functionally extinct and greater intervention through aquaculture and restoration is needed to enable their recovery. Using geospatial analysis that includes historical data from written and verbal sources, we developed and applied a spatial dataset and prioritization process to inform restoration and ecologically sustainable aquaculture development for bivalve species going forward.This article is part of the theme issue 'Shifting seas: understanding deep-time human impacts on marine ecosystems'.

Natural and anthropogenic controls on nutrient fluxes in two small rivers draining contrasting climate gradients across Southern Western Ghats, India.

The Western Ghats of southern India, a biodiversity hotspot and major water source, host several rivers influenced by diverse climatic, geological, and land-use settings. This study investigates the spatiotemporal dynamics of Dissolved Inorganic Nitrogen (DIN), Dissolved Inorganic Phosphate (DIP), and Dissolved Silica (DSi) in two small rivers-the Bhavani and the Thuthapuzha-which drain contrasting climatic zones of the southern Western Ghats. A total of 150 water samples were collected across seasons and zones to assess nutrient fluxes and their controlling factors. Results revealed substantial spatial and seasonal differences in nutrient concentrations. In the Bhavani river, mean DIN values were 112.12µg/l (pre-monsoon), 1432.14µg/l (monsoon), and 240.98µg/l (post-monsoon). The corresponding values in the Thuthapuzha river were 278.56µg/l, 306.90µg/l, and 122.70µg/l, respectively. Mean DIP concentrations ranged from 8.38 to 16.59µg/l in the Bhavani and from 2.69 to 11.01µg/l in the Thuthapuzha. DSi levels were higher in the Bhavani river, with mean values between 6.83 and 8.73mg/l, compared to 4.51 to 7.67mg/l in the Thuthapuzha river. Nutrient concentrations in the Bhavani increased downstream, influenced by intensive agriculture and domestic wastewater inputs, particularly in the semi-arid zones. In the Thuthapuzha, which drains a persistently humid catchment, nutrient enrichment was also observed in areas of high land-use intensity. Seasonal monsoonal runoff significantly impacted nutrient loads, with elevated DIN and DIP during the wet season. Higher DSi levels in cultivated zones were linked to silicate weathering and soil erosion. Long-term trends suggest an increase in nutrient inputs, particularly from fertilizer use. These findings highlight the role of climate, land use and anthropogenic pressure in regulating nutrient fluxes in tropical river systems and underscore the need for integrated watershed management in rapidly transforming catchments of the Western Ghats.

Plans for villages in the margin of the lagoon with an accentuation on tourism advancement (Case Study: Village Rogbeh, Shadegan, Iran)

This research examines the potential for sustainable tourism development in Rogbeh Village, a socio-economically marginalized settlement situated along the ecologically fragile Shadegan Lagoon in southwestern Iran. Confronting intersecting challenges of environmental degradation (e.g., pollution, habitat loss) and socio-economic vulnerability (e.g., youth outmigration, infrastructure deficits), this study proposes a participatory tourism framework that synergistically integrates Indigenous cultural heritage—including Arabic-speaking Bahrani traditions, vernacular stilt architecture, and artisanal houri canoe craftsmanship—with regenerative infrastructure design. Employing a robust mixed methodology, the research synthesizes: comprehensive SWOT analysis to identify strengths (e.g., lagoon-centric livelihoods, biodiversity hotspots), weaknesses (e.g., absent wastewater treatment, limited tourist accommodations), opportunities(e.g., Ramsar Convention recognition), and threats (e.g., saltwater intrusion); semi-structured interviews with 45 key stakeholders (30 villagers, 10 local officials, 5 NGO representatives), revealing community priorities and ecological concerns; quantitative datasets on water quality, demographic trends, and livelihood dependency ratios. Findings demonstrate Rogbeh’s unique cultural-ecological landscape as a high-potential ecotourism destination. However, critical barriers—notably institutional fragmentation, sanitation deficiencies, and seasonal eco-nomic instability require systematic intervention. The study advocates a three-pillar solution: eco-sensitive infrastructure: reed-built lodges using solar energy, grey-water recycling, and elevated walkways to minimize wetland disruption; community led governance: tourism coopera-tives allocating 30% of revenues to local healthcare/education, with microgrants for women-led enterprises; this model positions Rogbeh as a replicable prototype where cultural resilience, ecological stewardship, and equitable benefit-shar-ing catalyze holistic sustainability in marginalized wetland communities offering transformative insights for global South contexts facing similar climate-poverty nexuses.

Evaluating the impact of climate change on mountaintop endemic bird species in the Ethiopian highlands: insights from moorland francolin (Scleroptila psilolaema)

Anthropogenic climate change poses a profound threat to global biodiversity, particularly to the unique flora and fauna of highland ecosystems within biodiversity hotspots. We used ensemble species distribution modeling to assess the current and future distribution of moorland francolin, endemic to the Ethiopian highlands, the largest alpine habitat in Africa. Our results demonstrated that the average predictive accuracy of six algorithms had high discrimination ability. Temperature variables were the main determinants of the potential distribution of moorland francolin, with annual mean temperature making the largest contribution, and to a lesser extent, mean diurnal range, temperature seasonality, and temperature annual range. Accordingly, the results showed that the extent of the current suitable habitat for moorland francolin in the alpine habitats of the Ethiopian highlands is 6861.99 km2. However, the range will be contracted to 389.48 km2 when projecting our ensemble on climate change scenarios, i.e., assuming the intermediate shared socio-economic pathways (SSP 126) between 2041 and 2060, and no suitable habitat will be available assuming the highest shared socio-economic pathways (SSP 370 and SSP 585). We also evaluated which areas exceed the training conditions of the models in projections using Multivariate Environmental Similarity Surface (MESS) to understand potential future niche dynamics of the species. Current climate change and habitat loss on the mountaintops of the Ethiopian highlands may pose a serious threat to moorland francolin, as major parts of its currently realized niche may be reduced. Our results also suggest that the species could be classified as Vulnerable (VU). Species-specific conservation measures are needed to mitigate the effects of climate change on alpine habitats.

Widespread and strong impacts of river fragmentation by anthropogenic barriers on fishes in the Mekong River Basin

The Mekong River, a global freshwater biodiversity hotspot, has suffered from intensive barrier construction, resulting in major challenges in safeguarding its fauna. Here, we provide a comprehensive evaluation of the impacts of river barriers on the distribution of 952 fish species in the Mekong River Basin. Our analysis revealed that 93% of Mekong fish species analysed suffer from habitat fragmentation, and species with larger habitat range requirements experienced higher river fragmentation impacts. Sub-basins along the main channel in the Lower Mekong had high values of species richness but relatively high barrier impacts. Across all migration types, freshwater-resident migratory (potamodromous) fishes were affected by the greatest levels of habitat fragmentation (Fragmentation Index, 42.45 [95% confidence interval, 38.61–46.62]). Among all International Union for Conservation of Nature conservation status categories, Critically Endangered species experienced the highest habitat fragmentation index (34.48 [19.46–53.52]). Among all barrier types in the Mekong, small dams and sluice gates contributed more to habitat fragmentation than large dams. While the effects of existing individual large dams on habitat fragmentation and fish distribution in the Mekong Basin are greater than for small barriers, the cumulative impacts of small barriers are greater; hence, basin-wide connectivity planning is needed for more effective conservation.

Identifying late Pleistocene and Holocene refugia for baboons

Climate change has the scope to significantly modulate the distribution of floral and faunal taxa, with those regions persistently suitable to a population through the largest environmental perturbations termed “refugia”. Within Africa, focus has been placed on forest refugia during glacial cycles as hotspots of biodiversity, whilst refugia for savannah species have been overlooked. We compiled a comprehensive dataset of baboon occurrences and fitted species distribution model ensembles to predict the present potential habitable range of each species and the genus as a whole. We then hindcasted these models to palaeoclimate reconstructions spanning the Late Pleistocene and Holocene in 1-thousand-year time steps to predict potentially habitable ranges throughout a full interglacial-glacial cycle. Our results indicate a substantial mosaic of refugia in the eastern African Rift Valley system, a discrete refugium in southern and south-western Africa, as well as isolated refugia across western Africa and Arabia. Orbital precession and obliquity both play a role in driving maxima and minima or predicted habitable ranges for alternate baboon species, but these appear expressed within ca. 100 thousand-year eccentricity cycles. This supports the use of full interglacial-glacial cycles, rather than simply comparing peak glacial and interglacial conditions, to determine the presence of refugia.

A phylogenomic‐based new taxonomy and biogeographic history of the genus Piptanthus (Leguminosae)

Abstract The Qinghai‐Tibet Plateau and the Hengduan Mountains, which are among the world's key biodiversity hotspots, have long captivated botanists. Piptanthus, a genus of evergreen shrubs in the tribe Thermopsideae (Leguminosae, Papilionoideae), is an endemic and distinctive element of this region. Historically, the genus was considered to comprise two or three species, but species delimitation has been contentious due to a lack of comprehensive research on its morphological variation, distribution patterns, and evolutionary history. In this study, we map a more detailed distribution range of the genus, infer its historical biogeography, and propose species delimitation by integrating newly collected chloroplast genome and morphological data. Our findings indicate that Piptanthus should be treated as a single species, viz. Piptanthus nepalensis, which is broadly distributed from the Himalayas to the Hengduan‐Arakan Mountains. We estimate that the genus diverged with Anagyris at c. 6.8 Ma, subsequently splitting into two clades at c. 5.67 Ma: one in the Qinling Mountains and the other in the Himalaya‐Hengduan‐Arakan Mountains. The Hengduan‐Arakan (Myanmar) clade is relatively young, with an estimated crown group time at c. 2.39 Ma, likely resulting from adaptation to newly formed forest habitats following the southward migration of forests after the secondary uplift of the Qinghai‐Tibet Plateau.

Running to the mountains: changes in plant-pollinator networks structure over space.

Plant-pollinator networks play a crucial role in supporting biodiversity and ecosystem functioning, especially in mountainous regions. Plant-pollinators networks experience various influences from biotic and abiotic factors across elevation gradients and flowering seasons, impacting species distribution, interactions, and community structures. In our study, we examined plant-pollinator network structures at 14 sites across elevations from 1000 to 1800m above sea level in a Mediterranean mountainous area. The study aimed to determine if plant-pollinator network structures remain consistent across different spatial contexts (elevations and habitats) and to assess the impact of abiotic drivers on network structure. We documented a total of 3343 interactions involving 343 pollinator species and 44 plant species, with bees and flies as prominent participants. Results showed low nestedness, which increased only with rainfall, and was generally higher in forests than in outcrop areas. High specialization was noted, with an increase in specialization correlated with rainfall. Network modularity was more pronounced in outcrops compared to forests, with soil temperature and rainfall boosting modularity. Interaction diversity was greater in outcrops and showed a positive relationship with rainfall. High robustness correlated inversely with specialization. Our findings highlight that flower and pollinator diversity, combined with climatic factors, predict network modularity, specialization, and robustness. This research illustrates how network structures differ across habitat types and elevation, revealing potential vulnerabilities of plant-pollinator interactions to environmental changes throughout the flowering season. We also highlight the potential impact of climate change on pollination networks on mountain areas (as hotspots of biodiversity).

New Species of Mud Turtle (Testudines: Kinosternidae) from the Tres Marías Islands, Nayarit, Mexico

The mud turtles in the Islas Tres Marías archipelago, off western Nayarit, are one of the earliest known Kinosternon populations from Mexico, with discovery dating from the late 19th century. Though known for almost a sesquicentennial, the identity of the species there was originally confused in a nearly century-long serial fluctuation that vacillated between that of K. integrum and that of K. hirtipes. This taxo-nomenclatural history is fully reviewed here, and following the neotype designation and sensu stricto redefinition of Kinosternon integrum LeConte, 1854 by Joseph-Ouni et al. (2025), these insular mud turtles were investigated from a taxo-morphological perspective. They are described here as constituting a distinct new species in the K. integrum complex based on a suite of morphometric, morphological and colorimetric characters. The origin of these mud turtles is believed to be vicariant, as no evidence of human introduction is apparent. As no suitable habitat exists on the remaining islands, the new species is endemic solely to Isla María Madre, joining a long list of endemic vertebrates from this spectacular hotspot of biodiversity.

Importance of connectivity for carnivore richness and occupancy in fragmented biodiversity hotspots.

Structural connectivity affects wildlife movement between habitat patches, contributing to the persistence of wildlife populations and their resilience to human-induced and environmental changes. However, its importance to wildlife population persistence remains unclear, particularly in fragmented landscapes, where there are additional co-occurring threats and varying protected area coverage (PAC). Using South American carnivore assemblages and fragmented tropical forests as a case study, we assessed the relative effect of structural connectivity on carnivore persistence in fragmented landscapes after accounting for PAC, and the efficacy of single-species connectivity approaches for protecting the habitat of multiple species. We applied a multiscale Bayesian modeling framework to camera-trapping data from 567 cameras in 23 landscapes in the Tumbesian region of Ecuador and Peru. We tested the landscape-scale effects of habitat amount, connectivity, human density, and protected area status on carnivore richness and mean occupancy and the fine-scale effects of forest cover, distance to roads, and hunting on carnivore site occupancy. In 41,861 camera days of sampling, we obtained 5267 independent detections of 12 carnivores across all landscapes. Connectivity, habitat amount, and PAC had a positive effect on carnivore richness, emphasizing that large and well-connected landscapes of natural habitat with greater PAC sustain more species-rich carnivore communities. Mean site occupancy across the carnivore community was positively associated with forest cover at the fine scale and connectivity at the landscape scale. This last relationship varied by species, with occupancy of forest-dependent mesocarnivores being most positively associated with higher connectivity. Our results highlight that increasing connectivity can improve the persistence of vulnerable carnivore populations, even in landscapes with varied amount of PAC. Furthermore, conservation planning to increase connectivity should take a multispecies approach because single-species approaches are unlikely to meet the needs of diverse communities.

FRAMING ANALYSIS OF NICKEL MINING NEWS IN RAJA AMPAT: KOMPAS.COM AND CNN INDONESIA

This study examines the framing analysis of news coverage on nickel mining in Raja Ampat by two Indonesian online media outlets: Kompas.com and CNN Indonesia. The research investigates how each platform constructs and presents news regarding the controversial nickel mining plans and operations in Raja Ampat, Southwest Papua. The unit of analysis consists of selected news articles published by CNN Indonesia and Kompas.com. These sources were chosen as primary data to understand the media’s role in shaping public perception. The nickel mining project in Raja Ampat has sparked widespread opposition from various sectors, including environmental activists, academics, tourism stakeholders, and religious leaders. This resistance is driven by concerns over the potential environmental degradation threatening both marine and terrestrial ecosystems in one of the world's biodiversity hotspots. Utilizing Robert Entman’s framing analysis method, the findings reveal that both media outlets acknowledge the mining project’s potential to harm ecological integrity and undermine sustainable tourism. However, CNN Indonesia emphasizes the role of the state in improving policy through strategic masterplan development, while Kompas.com highlights the need to evaluate mining permits, impose temporary halts on extractive operations, and strengthen community participation in protecting ecologically sensitive areas

Naturally sampled environmental DNA helps determine the distribution of critically endangered species in a global hotspot of marine biodiversity

Naturally sampled environmental DNA helps determine the distribution of critically endangered species in a global hotspot of marine biodiversity

A new species of Tinodes Curtis, 1834 (Trichoptera: Psychomyiidae) from Ifrane National Park, Morocco

Recent studies on caddisflies in Morocco have led to the discovery of several new species. However, less investigated areas still remain. In this paper, we present the description of a new species, Tinodes zarhloule Ibrahimi, Mabrouki & Taybi sp. nov., from Ifrane National Park. This area is part of the Middle Atlas Massif, a hotspot of freshwater biodiversity in Morocco and broadly North Africa. The new species is compared with its closest congeners: Tinodes algiricus McLachlan, 1880, T. hispaniae Botosaneanu & de Jalón, 1987, and T. ankrimensis Mey, 2018. This study brings the total number of known taxa of the genus Tinodes Curtis, 1834 in Morocco to nine, most of which are endemic to the country.

DIVERSIDAD DE AVES DEL OESTE DE LA PROVINCIA DE CARCHI, ECUADOR

Describing bird diversity patterns in complex biogeographic regions such as the Andes Mountains is crucial for understanding their biogeography and evolution. In Northern Ecuador lies the province of Carchi, geographically located in the inter-Andean valley, over the Pasto massif, where the western and eastern Ecuadorian branches diverge southward. Western Carchi, settled on the western Andean Cordillera, exhibits a wide altitudinal gradient and vegetation turnover from lowlands to high Andes. Although the area is part of the Chocó bioregion, a global biodiversity and endemism hotspot, knowledge of its avifauna remains limited. In this study, we present the most comprehensive bird checklist for western Carchi, obtained from non-systematic explorations and observation spanning nearly four decades. Additionally, we reviewed and included records from ornithological literature and online platforms. Species were grouped into zoogeographic zones, endemic areas, conservation status, and we also documented distribution range expansion. We recorded a total of 619 bird species, with 27 migratory. We found highest richness in Foothills and Subtropical zones. Moreover, 48 species were associated with the Chocó and the Northern Central Andes, and surprisingly, 6 with mainly Amazonian distribution. Furthermore, 54 species were categorized as globally and/or nationally threatened, and we presented new distribution ranges for 52 species. Species richness in western Carchi is comparable to other regions of similar extent along the western Andes of Ecuador and Colombia, although the presence of species from the Amazonian foothills of the Andes, which are restricted to the western of the Pasto massif, is notable from a biogeographic perspective

Biogeography and evolution of the vertebrate fauna in campo rupestre, a megadiverse Neotropical montane open ecosystem

ABSTRACT Mountains are hotspots of biodiversity and endemism, but biogeography and diversification in tropical montane grasslands remain poorly understood. We reviewed hypotheses explaining the origin of vertebrate fauna ranging from phylogeography to community-scale patterns, while also considering historical biogeography and macroevolutionary dynamics in campo rupestre in the Espinhaço Range. We conducted a systematic review of papers published in 1945–2023 on vertebrate ecology, biogeography, and diversification in campo rupestre. The vertebrate fauna of campo rupestre is characterized by high levels of biodiversity and endemism relative to area extent across most taxa. Unfortunately, such diversity is increasingly threatened, with ~20% of endemic species listed on the IUCN Red List. Hummingbirds are key pollinators, whereas seed dispersal is performed primarily by generalist birds, small mammals, and lizards. A combination of isolation, range shifts, and species persistence played key roles in shaping diversification dynamics in these ancient mountains. High levels of diversity, endemism, and the occurrence of threatened species underscore the pressing need for funding conservation of the outstanding biodiversity in the Espinhaço Range. We propose a research agenda to fill knowledge gaps and promote research needed to provide a more complete understanding of the biogeographical scenario and accelerate protection strategies.