Biodiversity Conservation Policies Research Articles

Satellite Long-Term Monitoring of Wetland Ecosystem Functioning in Ramsar Sites for Their Sustainable Management

The long-term monitoring of wetland ecosystem functioning is critical because wetlands, which provide multiple services, can be affected by human activities and climate change. The aim of this study was to monitor wetland ecosystem functioning in the long term using the Landsat archive. Four contrasting, Ramsar wetlands were selected in boreal, temperate, arid, and tropical areas. First, the annual sum of the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI-I) was calculated as an indicator of annual net primary productivity for the period 1984–2021 using the continuous change detection and classification (CCDC) algorithm. Next, the influence of the number of Landsat images and class of land use and land cover (LULC) on the accuracy of the CCDC was investigated. Finally, correlations between annual NDVI-I and climate were analyzed. The results revealed that NDVI-I accuracy was influenced mainly by the LULC class and to a lesser extent by the number of cloud-free Landsat observations. Infra- and inter-site variations in NDVI-I were high and showed an overall increasing trend. NDVI-I was positively correlated with the mean temperature. This study shows that this approach applied in contrasting sites is robust for the long-term monitoring of wetland ecosystem functioning and can be used to improve the implementation of international biodiversity conservation policies.

Trap or Opportunity: Impact of the Fishing Ban Compensation Policy on the Income of Returning Fishermen in China

The conflict between biodiversity conservation and economic development is intense in developing countries. With the decline in biodiversity, the Chinese government imposed a 10-year fishing ban in the priority waters of the Yangtze River Basin, which resulted in many fishermen losing their livelihood. However, a compensation policy was subsequently introduced. To investigate the impact of the ban, we conducted a two-year study using balanced panel data and the PSM-DID model for 365 households in the Poyang Lake area and introduced fixed effects to discuss the impact of the Yangtze River fishing ban compensation policy on the income of returning fishermen and their choices for alternative income. We also explored the interactive effects of fishing ban compensation and other biodiversity conservation policies on their income. The results showed that the fishing ban negatively impacted the agricultural income of households but not the total household income, and the compensation somewhat subsidized the fishermen’s loss of income. Moreover, this was an opportunity for farmers to adjust their livelihood strategies. These findings improve our understanding of the impact of this fishing ban and compensation policy on the household incomes of returning fishermen and their adaptive strategies for alternative income.

Positive relationship between bird diversity and human mental health: an analysis of repeated cross-sectional data

An increasing body of research has examined the link between biodiversity of birds and human mental health, but most studies only use cross-sectional data. Few studies have used longitudinal or repeated cross-sectional data to investigate the mental health benefits of bird diversity. The aim of this study is to analyse the relationship between bird diversity and mental health at the national level using a unique repeated cross-sectional dataset. I used repeated cross-sectional health data from the German National Cohort health study, collected between March, 2014, and September, 2019, and annual bird citizen science data to investigate the effects of bird-diversity exposure on mental health. Mental health was measured using the summary score of the Patient Health Questionnaire depression module 9 (SumPHQ) and the Short Form Health Survey-12 Mental Health Component Scale. As a proxy for bird diversity, I created a unique indicator called reporting-rate richness and combined it with the health data. Reporting-rate richness measures the number of bird species within postcode areas across Germany in probabilities while accounting for variation in survey efforts. Alternative indicators of bird diversity, such as bird-species richness or abundance, were also calculated. Associations between bird diversity and mental health were estimated using linear regression with region and time fixed effects, adjusted for a range of sociodemographic and environmental confounders and spatial autocorrelation. Interaction terms between income levels and reporting-rate richness were also analysed to examine the moderating effect of socioeconomic status. I did the analyses for an unbalanced (n=176 362) and balanced (n=125 423) dataset, with the balanced dataset comprising only regions (postcode areas) in which health data were available for each year. The linear fixed-effects regression analysis indicated a significant negative association between reporting-rate richness and SumPHQ, as observed in both the unbalanced dataset (β -0·02, p=0·017) and the balanced dataset (β -0·03, p=0·0037). Similarly, regression results with both datasets showed a positive relationship between reporting-rate richness and Mental Health Component Scale (MCS; unbalanced β 0·02, p=0·0086; balanced β 0·03, p=0·0018). The moderator analyses revealed a significant influence of socioeconomic status on the relationship between reporting-rate richness and mental health. The robustness of these findings was confirmed through sensitivity analyses. The results suggest that a greater likelihood of having many different bird species in a person's area of residence might positively contribute to mental health, especially for people with lower socioeconomic status. These findings could have implications for biodiversity conservation and health policy decisions, as governments are facing challenges such as global biodiversity loss and growing public mental health problems. None.

Unraveling biogeographical patterns and environmental drivers of soil fungal diversity at the French national scale

Abstract. The fungal kingdom is among the most diversified kingdoms on Earth, with estimations of up to 12 million species. However, it remains poorly understood, with only 150 000 fungal species currently described. Given the major ecological role of fungi in ecosystem functioning, these numbers stress the importance of investigating fungal diversity description across different ecosystem types. Here, we explored the spatial distribution of the soil fungal diversity on a broad geographical scale, using the French Soil Quality Monitoring Network that covers the whole French territory (2171 soils sampled along a systematic grid). Fungal alpha diversity was assessed directly from soil DNA using a meta-barcoding approach by targeting the 18S rDNA gene. The total accumulated fungal diversity across France included 136 219 operational taxonomic units (OTUs), i.e., about 1 % of worldwide soil fungal diversity (based on a maximum diversity estimate of 12 million) for a territory representing only 0.3 % of the terrestrial surface on Earth. Based on this dataset, the first extensive map of fungal alpha diversity was drawn and showed a heterogeneous and spatially structured distribution in large biogeographical patterns of 231 km radius for richness (Hill diversity of order 0) and smaller patterns of 36 km radius for dominant fungi (Hill diversity of order 2). As related to other environmental parameters, the spatial distribution of fungal diversity (Hill numbers based on different orders of diversity) was mainly influenced by local filters such as soil characteristics and land management and also by global filters such as climate conditions with various relative influences. Interestingly, cropped soils exhibited the highest pool of fungal diversity relative to forest and vineyard soils. To complement this, soil fungal OTU network interactions were calculated for the different land uses across France. They varied hugely and showed a loss of 75 % of the complexity in crop systems and grasslands compared to forests and up to 83 % in vineyard systems. Overall, our study revealed that a nationwide survey with a high spatial-resolution approach is relevant for deeply investigating the spatial distribution and determinism of soil fungal diversity. Our findings provide novel insights for a better understanding of soil fungal ecology across the 18S rDNA gene and upgrade biodiversity conservation policies by supplying representative repositories dedicated to soil fungi.

Mining threats in high-level biodiversity conservation policies.

Amid a global infrastructure boom, there is increasing recognition of the ecological impacts of the extraction and consumption of construction minerals, mainly processed as concrete, including significant and expanding threats to global biodiversity. We investigated how high-level national and international biodiversity conservation policies address mining threats, with a special focus on construction minerals. We conducted a review and quantified the degree to which threats from mining these minerals are addressed in biodiversity goals and targets under the 2011-2020 and post-2020 biodiversity strategies, national biodiversity strategies and action plans, and the assessments of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. Mining appeared rarely in national targets but more frequently in national strategies. Yet, in most countries, it was superficially addressed. Coverage of aggregates mining was greater than coverage of limestone mining. We outline 8 key components, tailored for a wide range of actors, to effectively mainstream biodiversity conservation into the extractive, infrastructure, and construction sectors. Actions include improving reporting and monitoring systems, enhancing the evidence base around mining impacts on biodiversity, and modifying the behavior of financial agents and businesses. Implementing these measures could pave the way for a more sustainable approach to construction mineral use and safeguard biodiversity.

European genetic resources conservation in a rapidly changing world: three existential challenges for the crop, forest and animal domains in the 21st century

Even though genetic resources represent a fundamental reservoir of options to achieve sustainable development goals in a changing world, they are overlooked in the policy agenda and severely threatened. The conservation of genetic resources relies on complementary in situ and ex situ approaches appropriately designed for each type of organism. Environmental and socioeconomic changes raise new challenges and opportunities for sustainable use and conservation of genetic resources. Aiming at a more integrated and adaptive approach, European scientists and genetic resources managers with long experience in the agricultural crop, animal and forestry domains joined their expertise to address three critical challenges: (1) how to adapt genetic resources conservation strategies to climate change, (2) how to promote in situ conservation strategies and (3) how can genetic resources conservation contribute to and benefit from agroecological systems. We present here 31 evidence-based statements and 88 key recommendations elaborated around these questions for policymakers, conservation actors and the scientific community. We anticipate that stakeholders in other genetic resources domains and biodiversity conservation actors across the globe will have interest in these crosscutting and multi-actor recommendations, which support several biodiversity conservation policies and practices.

Preserving a Legacy: Ensuring the Access and Conservation of the Harold (Harry) G. Fowler (19502018) Ant Collection and Data.

Biological collections are important repositories of biodiversity, as they include various types of data potentially useful to different areas of science and can contribute to the establishment of biodiversity conservation policies. For a long time, scientific collections were considered only as physical databases; in this context Harold G. Fowler (19502018) built an ant collection at the Universidade Estadual Paulista, campus Rio Claro (So Paulo state, Brazil), over the course of a 34-year career, comprising around 20,000 ant specimens. Most specimens came from the Brazilian Atlantic Forest, but many others came from distinct locations in Brazil and abroad. After his death, the collection was left without the necessary curatorial care for a period of time, which required a project to be conceived for its recovery and conservation, with the goal of incorporating it to the Zoology Museum of the University of So Paulo (MZSP). In addition to applying modern technical curation protocols, other activities such as checking, material identification and digitization of the information contained on the sample labels were carried out, forming an accurate database. This process enabled the identification of new distribution records and the discovery of possible undescribed species and unpublished natural history data. After validating this information, we counted 524 valid species and 201 morphospecies belonging to 105 genera and 10 subfamilies. In addition, we integrated technical curation activities with scientific outreach to draw the general publics attention to the importance of biological collections, thus fostering interest in science, biodiversity and nature conservation. Our work highlights the importance of preserving the areas sampled by Fowlers research group. The preservation of vouchers using curatorial practices reinforces the role of scientific collections as important tools for the study, understanding and preservation of biodiversity.

Hydroperiod length, not pond age, determines zooplankton taxonomic and functional diversity in temporary ponds

Mediterranean Temporary ponds (MTPs) are suffering severe alterations in their hydrological and salinity regime through global change, and restoration or conservation of these habitats is a priority. However, there is little information that can be used as a scientific basis for restoration.We studied the taxonomic and functional diversity of zooplankton communities in a set of 96 ponds in Doñana, Spain during four consecutive hydroperiods after their creation. We examined the differences across hydroperiods in alpha and beta diversity (and its turnover and nestedness components) of the rotifer, cladoceran and copepod community, as well as the influence of local environmental variables including the proximity to natural wetlands.There was no general increase in diversity indices after the first two hydroperiods. We found that shorter hydroperiods significantly reduced taxonomic diversity, but increased the contribution to functional beta diversity through turnover. Shorter hydroperiods also reduced community complexity, with long-term effects. Conductivity was the most important predictor of zooplankton alpha and beta diversity, but the direction of its effects changed between hydroperiods. The distance from a natural source of colonists, and pond depth, were key during the early stage of community assembly and after a hydrological perturbation.Our results suggest that new restoration projects for MTPs should focus on increasing local environmental heterogeneity and on reducing vulnerability to salinization.The use of functional approaches in monitoring studies can improve our understanding of mechanisms and processes affecting zooplankton community assembly under dynamic hydrological regimes. This in turn can help us predict the consequences of management and restoration policies for biodiversity conservation in MTPs.

Skepticism in the Recognition of Traditional Knowledge for Public Policy Management Related to Climate Change

The investigation aimed to identify the contribution of traditional knowledge in the construction and management of public policies for biodiversity conservation and adaptation to climate change. It was based on two studies conducted between 2015 and 2017 in two indigenous rural communities situated above 3,910 meters above sea level in the northern Puno region of Peru. The results have been synthesized to generate a proposal for strategic guidelines for high mountain agriculture with a focus on adaptation to climate change. The identified categories of traditional knowledge encompass: a) soil, b) water, c) plant health, d) measures against hailstorms, e) measures against frost, f) organization and ritual, and g) varieties and mixtures tolerant to climatic extremes.
 A workspace is the community itself. In the absence of public policies that take into consideration the promotion of traditional knowledge, the community establishes guidelines and actions rooted on traditional knowledge of biodiversity conservation and adaptation to climate change in plans of life aligned with the local worldview, with the aim of escalating to the district level. 
 
 A workspace is the community itself, which in the absence of public policies that take into consideration the promotion of traditional knowledge, establish guidelines and actions based on traditional knowledge of biodiversity conservation and adaptation to climate change in plans of life based on the local worldview, with the aim of escalating to the district level.

Governing anthropogenic assets for nature’s contributions to people in forests: a policy document analysis

Forests support human wellbeing by providing multiple nature’s contributions to people (NCP). These are derived from an interplay of both natural and anthropogenic assets, which is a process known as NCP co-production. Like forests and NCP, anthropogenic assets are subject to modes of governance operating across multiple levels, in which policies are a central tool for executing formal governance. Here, we conduct a policy document analysis to investigate how policies refer to both the anthropogenic assets involved in NCP co-production and the modes of governance affecting these, i.e., hierarchical, scientific-technical, (adaptive)-collaborative governance, and the governing of strategic behaviour. The policy document analysis focuses on forestry and biodiversity conservation policies spanning across multiple governance levels, from the local level – two Biosphere Reserves and one National Park in Germany – to the supra-national level of the European Union. We find that policies predominantly address material and regulating NCP and refer to hierarchical and scientific-technical governance. Based on a redundancy analysis, we identify six archetypes of governance of NCP and the anthropogenic assets underpinning their co-production: (1) the governing of strategic behaviour for regulating NCP, (2) governing habitat management for experiences in nature, (3) governing habitat management for pest control, (4) collaborative governance for timber, (5) local governance for experiences in nature, and (6) promoting knowledge for habitat protection. Our analysis thereby unveils how policies intend to govern anthropogenic capitals related to the co-production of specific forest NCP. The findings, including the six archetypes, can support policymakers in designing policies across governance levels.

Biodiversity Conservation and Sustainable Livelihoods Diversification: Insights and Policy Implications for Rural Communities in South Africa

This paper aims to analyze the effects of biodiversity conservation on sustainable livelihood diversification of rural communities in South Africa. Global evidence demonstrated a nuanced connection between biodiversity conservation and sustainable livelihood diversification. Biodiversity conservation is flourishing, and its industry has grown to a point where it accounts for a big part of South Africa's Gross Domestic Product. However, it remains a concern that the poverty levels in rural communities continue to rise, and there is no improvement brought by biodiversity conservation towards sustainable livelihood diversification. This is a theoretical paper that adopted the qualitative research method. The data for the paper was compiled through a desktop study wherein newspapers, scholarly journal articles, and government documents related to the effects of biodiversity conservation on sustainable livelihood diversification of rural communities in South Africa. Therefore, Document analysis was appropriate and selected to analyze the data. The paper found that balancing biodiversity conservation and sustainable livelihood diversification remains challenging in South Africa. This makes it difficult for rural communities to have sustainable livelihood diversification. This paper concludes that biodiversity conservation needs to do more justice to ensuring sustainable livelihood diversification for rural communities in the country. Therefore, it recommends the government delegate candidates or departments to continuously monitor and ensure that nature reserves practicing biodiversity conservation give back to nearby rural communities. Biodiversity conservation policies and legislations in line with the development of rural communities should be reviewed, adjusted, and ensured that they have operated accordingly.

Estimating the non-market value of island biodiversity in China: Controlling for warm glow bias in contingent valuation method

Island ecosystems have always played a leading role in conservation biology globally. However, the rich biodiversity of islands is seriously threatened by human activities. Quantifying island biodiversity in economic terms is important since it allows the benefits associated with island biodiversity to be directly compared with the economic value of alternative resource use options, which is essential in the formulation of effective policies for island biodiversity conservation. The main objective of this paper is to assess the economic value of island biodiversity on Pingtan Island, China. The contingent valuation method (CVM) was used to obtain a public willingness to pay (WTP) estimate for a policy to protect island biodiversity. To obtain a more reliable WTP estimation result, a grouped data model was used to test and correct for warm glow bias. The results demonstrate that more than half of the positive bidders are individuals who could be considered to exhibit warm glow behavior and that the warm glow effect will result in an overestimation of WTP. After endogenizing the warm glow effect, the estimated total value of marine biodiversity on Pingtan Island is 73.72 million Chinese yuan (CNY) per year. The results could provide a data basis for cost-benefit analysis, ecological restoration and other environmental management schemes related to island biodiversity.

The slow violence of fortress conservation creates conditions for socially unjust ‘voluntary’ relocation

The creation of inviolate Protected Areas for the conservation of charismatic carnivores displaces forest-dwelling communities and reduces their access to vital forest-based livelihood resources like timber, wild food, commercial gums-resins, fuel, and fodder for livestock. We illustrate how exclusionary projects to conserve the Asiatic Lion and the African cheetah in Kuno National Park have adversely affected forest-based livelihoods and the indigenous tree tenure system of the Sahariya, a particularly vulnerable indigenous group in central India. This article traces the social justice implications of long-term restrictions on forest access and how these shape people's response to government attempts to relocate them. The empirical analysis is drawn on long-term livelihood data from two phases of household surveys conducted in 2005 and 2017. In addition, qualitative fieldwork (conducted in 2017 and 2023) and geospatial analysis were used to analyse the spatial dynamics of the increasingly restrictive forest access. The study highlights that quantity collected of chir (the gum-resin of the salai or Boswellia serrata tree) declined by 46 % during the study period. Systematic state restrictions on collecting non-timber forest produce (NTFP) unleashed a process of ‘slow violence’ on the Sahariya, steadily eroding their ability to survive in the forest. This has forced the Sahariya of village Bagcha to acquiesce to ‘voluntary’ relocation. Socially just biodiversity conservation policy should critically examine the inherently political processes underlying ‘voluntary’ relocation and strive to look for more inclusive coexistence alternatives.

Biodiversity conservation, advocacy coalitions, and science-focused disputes: the case of Caymanian coral reef conservation and the proposed port expansion project

An environmental dispute arose in the Cayman Islands where politicians and multinational cruise companies sought an infrastructure upgrade that would destroy 15 acres of coral reef habitat. A competing coalition emerged to contest this project resulting in important policy change: the first ever people’s-initiated referendum. Our research uses the Advocacy Coalition Framework (ACF) to study how policy change is enacted in a biodiversity conservation policy system. We find differences between two coalitions in members, policy beliefs, resources, and strategy. Policy beliefs of both coalitions reveal two competing realities, especially on the subject of science needed to inform a sustainable tourism economy, with scientific misinformation becoming increasingly impactful in policy making. Second, we find that one coalition leveraged the interests of powerful politicians and international corporations to advocate for the infrastructure project, even though the destruction of coral reefs was in defiance of laws. To contest this, the second coalition leveraged volunteers and small donations to enact policy change, successfully triggering the referendum. Our research is significant because in places where volunteering and small donations are less possible, such as in emerging market economies, it is easy to see how well-resourced interests could degrade biodiversity even with domestic laws protecting species and habitats.

A melting-pot for Pterodroma petrels on Rapa Nui: ecological divergence and reproductive isolation in a contact zone

Speciation is thought to depend on general ecological segregation rather than on strict allopatry in species with planetary-scale foraging ranges, such as Pterodroma petrels. Separation in both breeding islands and foraging grounds are generally considered to be the conditions for prezygotic isolation. However, it is unclear how both can be maintained in a context of ongoing distributional range shifts due to global change, with range contractions and expansions caused by changing land use in breeding territories and oceanographic conditions impacting productivity areas. In this context, we expect that wherever the fragile balance of allopatric segregation breaks down, gene flow may be re-established across the borders of what is currently considered separated species. In these “melting pot” areas, fine-scale ecological differentiation is likely the only force opposing panmixia in otherwise highly similar organisms. In this study, we focus on six Polynesian Pterodroma species currently found on Motu Nui, a protected islet offshore of Rapa Nui (Easter Island), four of which have likely extended their breeding range to that island recently. To understand the fine-scale interaction between these closely-related species in their new contact zone, we used an integrative approach combining ecological and genetic methods, including morphometric, bioacoustics, stable isotope niche reconstruction, breeding site characterisation, phenology traits, and both nuclear and mitochondrial DNA markers. We found that significant amounts of gene flow occur across what is currently considered species boundaries, sometimes questioning the relevance of the accepted species classification. Interestingly, our results indicate that multivariate ecological distance between individuals in a group of closely related species (P. alba, P. atrata, P. heraldica, and P. neglecta) is a relevant predictor of gene flow intensity, while more distant species such as P. ultima and P. nigripennis seem to maintain reproductive isolation. Thus, the case of Pterodroma petrels supports the idea that incomplete allopatric speciation processes may be halted or even reversed on a secondary contact zone. Beyond their direct taxonomical relevance, our results underline the importance of considering fine ecological structures for biodiversity mapping and conservation policies.

Perceived Social Impacts of Protected Areas, Their Influence on Local Public Support and Their Distribution across Social Groups: Evidence from the Eifel National Park, Germany, during the COVID-19 Pandemic

Protected Areas are a cornerstone of biodiversity conservation policies, providing significant benefits both for nature and people. This study investigates the diversity, extent, and social and spatial distribution of the social outcomes of the Eifel National Park in Germany and how these are linked with the level of public support for the park, as well as the effect of COVID-19 on these social impacts. Structured questionnaires were distributed to local residents living inside or near the national park. According to our study the national park is rated positively by the majority of respondents, and provides a range of benefits, but also costs, to local communities. There are also variations in how these impacts are distributed across different sub-communities, between residents and visitors, and across geographical locations in and around the park, and there is a significant relationship between local people’s perceptions of some social impacts and their level of support for the national park’s existence. Evidence from the COVID-19 pandemic suggests that, whilst living in close proximity to the park enhances the quality of life of local residents, any future increases in tourism may need careful planning and management if they are not to erode local people’s quality of life.

Factors affecting land use and land cover change and fragmentation in selected protected areas in the Philippines

The establishment of protected areas (PA) is one of the most prominent biodiversity conservation policies in the Philippines. Functions of the country’s PA policy include the reduction of deforestation, forest conservation, and decreasing human pressure on natural resources. This study aimed to assess the drivers of forest intactness and fragmentation in selected terrestrial PAs. Management Effectiveness Tracking Tool (METT) scores were used to consider the impact of drivers of land use and land cover (LULC) change, including economic development, population, road networks, cultivation, and PA management, on the percentage of forest cover and different fragmentation metrics in the PAs. The study conducted a Canonical Correlation Analysis (CCA) and Multiple Regression Analysis to identify the significant drivers of LULC change for each response variable. CCA and Multiple Regression Analysis results showed the most important predictors of LULC based on their canonical weights: cultivation within the PA, the human development index, and the regional gross domestic product. Aside from being the most important driving factor based on the CCA, cultivation inside the PA was also found to be a common significant variable for most dependent variables. Other significant factors were poverty index, population, and road density, which could all provide a basis for the observed PA fragmentation. The study also found that higher METT scores had a negative influence on the open forest and a positive effect on patch richness. This indicates that open forests tend to decrease as PA management improves while patch richness tends to increase. Furthermore, there is no data to support that METT scores have a significant influence on other response variables.

Best Practice Mechanisms for Biodiversity Conservation Law and Policy

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Soil fauna community characteristics and driving factors of Pinus tabuliformis in the loess region of northern Shaanxi

This study aimed to examine the characteristics and regulatory mechanisms of the soil fauna community in Pinus tabuliformis plantations at different restoration ages. The study was conducted on the soil fauna of Pinus tabuliformis in different restoration ages (6a, 11a, 18a, and 22a) in Wuqi County. Soil fauna, soil samples, understory herb biomass were collected in the spring, summer, autumn and winter of 2021. The relationship between the soil fauna community characteristics and environmental factors were studied. The results are as follows: (1) The density increased and the number of species decreased in the soil fauna community with an increase in restoration ages, and the composition and structure of the soil fauna community were significantly different at different restoration ages. (2) The diversity of the soil fauna community was highest and the soil food web was the most stable in 6-year-old Pinus tabuliformis plantations. Followed by a 22-year-old Pinus tabuliformis plantation. The lowest soil fauna diversity and the least stable food webs were found at 11- and 18-years-old of Pinus tabuliformis plantations. (3) The understory herb community had the greatest impact on the composition and structure of soil fauna community. SOM, NCP and NHS were the main factors affecting the composition of the soil fauna community. (4) During the restoration of Pinus tabuliformis plantations, the soil fauna community is mainly controlled by the top-down food resources, and the understory herb community driven the evolution process of the soil fauna community, thereby regulating the soil food web. Our research results emphasize the importance of sub-forest herbaceous vegetation to soil animals, which is essential for the formulation of sustainable biodiversity conservation policies for planted forest ecosystems.

Land-use change is associated with multi-century loss of elephant ecosystems in Asia

Understanding historic patterns of land use and land cover change across large temporal and spatial scales is critical for developing effective biodiversity conservation management and policy. We quantify the extent and fragmentation of suitable habitat across the continental range of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) based on present-day occurrence data and land-use variables between 850 and 2015 A.D. We found that following centuries of relative stability, over 64% (3.36 million km2) of suitable elephant habitat across Asia was lost since the year 1700, coincident with colonial-era land-use practices in South Asia and subsequent agricultural intensification in Southeast Asia. Average patch size dropped 83% from approximately 99,000–16,000 km2 and the area occupied by the largest patch decreased 83% from ~ 4 million km2 (45% of area) to 54,000 km2 (~ 7.5% of area). Whereas 100% of the area within 100 km of the current elephant range could have been considered suitable habitat in the year 1700, over half was unsuitable by 2015, driving potential conflict with people. These losses reflect long-term decline of non-forested ecosystems, exceeding estimates of deforestation within this century. Societies must consider ecological histories in addition to proximate threats to develop more just and sustainable land-use and conservation strategies.