Biodiversity Conservation Measures Research Articles

Soil Moisture and Litter Coverage Drive the Altitude Gradient Pattern of Soil Arthropods in a Low-Elevation Mountain

This study sought to investigate the vertical distribution pattern of the soil faunal community in a low-altitude mountain area. On 8 July 2022, a low hill was selected as the study area, and soil arthropods were collected through traps. The leaf litter, vegetation type, and distribution quantity of each sampling site were investigated while the soil faunae were collected. In addition, the soil’s physical and chemical parameters were measured. The results of a one-way ANOVA showed that there were significant differences (p < 0.05) in the soil properties, leaf litter, and plant quantities at different altitudes within the research area. A total of 1086 soil arthropods, belonging to five classes and ten orders, were collected during the study period. The dominant species of soil arthropods at different altitudes were significantly different. The dominant species in low-altitude areas were Armadillidium sp. and Aethus nigritus. However, Eupolyphaga sinensis and Philodromidae were the dominant species in high-altitude areas. The results of a non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) analysis showed that the soil faunae at different altitudes were clustered into two communities: a high-altitude community and a low-altitude community. With the increase in altitude, the species richness of the soil arthropods gradually decreased, and their abundance showed a decreasing trend. A redundancy analysis (RDA) of the soil arthropods and environmental factors showed that soil moisture (p < 0.01), pH (p < 0.01) and defoliation (p < 0.05) had significant effects on the distribution of the soil fauna. The results of a Pearson correlation analysis indicated that different environmental factors had interactive effects on the distribution of the soil arthropods. The quantity and species richness of the soil arthropods in different sample lines were tested using a variance analysis. The results showed that there were significantly smaller quantities of soil arthropods in the sampling line closer to the trekking ladder. This indicates that human tourism, namely mountaineering activities, had a direct impact on the soil fauna. This study can provide a reference for and data support in the development of biodiversity conservation measures for forest parks in low mountain areas.

How do different processes of habitat fragmentation affect habitat quality? – Evidence from China

Large-scale loss and fragmentation of natural habitats is one of the critical factors in the global decline of biodiversity. Habitat quality is the foundation for supporting biodiversity, so exploring the mechanisms by which habitat fragmentation affects habitat quality is important for biodiversity protection. However, little is known about the specific forms that various processes of habitat fragmentation affect habitat quality. Taking China as an example, the three processes of habitat fragmentation (the decrease in habitat area, the increase in habitat isolation, and the increase in habitat edge) and variations in habitat quality were quantitatively assessed from 2000 to 2020. On this basis, Pearson coefficients, Generalized Additive Model (GAM) and Geographical detector were employed to examine the linear\ on-linear\\combined impacts of habitat fragmentation different processes on habitat quality. The results indicated that there was a clear trend of habitat fragmentation and degradation of habitat quality in 2000–2020. 56.94%, 42.33%, and 50.89% of the area experienced the decrease in habitat area, the increase in habitat isolation, and the increase in habitat edge, respectively, and 63.12% experienced degradation of habitat quality. All three of these habitat fragmentation processes result in a downward trend in habitat quality. However, the specific form of impacts of habitat fragmentation different processes on habitat quality showed non-linear characteristics. The decrease in habitat area and the increase in habitat isolation consistently had a significant negative influence on habitat quality, albeit with varying strengths at different segments. While the increase in habitat edge causes an overall decrease in habitat quality, the two have a more complex non-linear relationship, with response curves varied between positive and negative correlations. In addition, negative impacts on habitat quality are exacerbated when multiple habitat fragmentation processes occur simultaneously. These findings reveal the complex impacts of different habitat fragmentation processes on habitat quality and inform the development of more rational landscape planning and biodiversity conservation measures in China.

Uso de los Sistemas de Vídeo Estereoscópico Submarino Remoto pelágicos (stereo-BRUV) para el estudio de las tortugas marinas en aguas atlánticas

The pelagic oceanic zone is one of the largest ecosystems on the planet, which is exposed to different anthropogenic pressures. In order to study and promote biodiversity conservation measures on these ecosystems, it is necessary to know the distribution of the species, the use of the habitat, the degree of connectivity and the status of populations. Carrying out such monitoring for pelagic and migratory species is complicated due to the fact that their distribution is not homogeneous and they can be widely distributed in different habitats, as is the case of sea turtles. In recent years, Baited Remote Underwater Stereo-Video (BRUVS) have become a popular tool to assess in a non-intrusive way. This innovative technique can provide us with important new information, in particular for the conservation of sea turtle populations by providing strategic knowledge about areas that have not been thoroughly studied, such as feeding areas and migration corridors in pelagic-coastal zones.

Assessment of the Level of Biodiversity Integration in Environmental Impact Assessment Reports in Nigeria

Inclusion of biodiversity into Environmental Impact assessment (EIA) process has been recognised as a means of addressing biodiversity loss. This study evaluated the extent of biodiversity inclusion in Nigeria`s EIA reports. One Hundred (100) sectoral EIA reports from Power, Manufacturing, Agric/Roads, Petroleum, and Infrastructure were assessed using the Biodiversity Inclusion Index obtained from 6 blended criteria and 38 attributes used across the globe for similar research. Results showed: above average assessment of biodiversity in the Project areas, integration of different levels of biodiversity elements, elucidation of short and long-term impacts on biodiversity, description of impact identification methodology/approaches as well as the rationale for using them. There were clear identification of project vulnerable stakeholders / beneficiaries of ecosystem services and allocation of responsibilities for managing impacts. In contrast, maps of the project area did not highlight biodiversity sensitive areas, urban and other industrial establishments, and projects, including distances to coastal area, water bodies and their ecologically sensitivities. There was insufficient identification of biodiversity components likely to be affected by project activities to enable impact prediction; non or poor identification and assessment of species habitats; limited explanation of ecosystem interactions and services rendered by endemic species. The study found gaps on the description of primary, secondary, and cumulative biodiversity impacts at ecosystem, species, and genetic levels as well as in species compositions and functions. Thus, specific measures for biodiversity conservation / restoration plans as well as financial allocation for biodiversity related action plan were poorly provided or non-existent. The results indicated biodiversity inclusion mean score of Power (65.7%), Petroleum (60.5%), Manufacturing (53.7%), Infrastructure (53.1%) and Agric/Road (42.5%)) with overall mean of 55.7%. The results confirmed significant biodiversity inclusion mean difference between Agric/Roads, Power, and Petroleum sectors. Recommendations were made to improve EIA processes in Nigeria by domesticating advancements in biodiversity conservation.

Bibliographic review on sustainability and processing of ornamental rocks

The processing of ornamental rocks involves several stages, from extraction in the deposits to the final finishing of the product. These stages can consume significant amounts of energy and water and generate solid waste and liquid effluents that may contaminate soil and water. Moreover, intensive exploitation of deposits can lead to environmental degradation and have a negative impact on local biodiversity. Faced with these challenges, the ornamental rock processing sector has been striving to adopt more sustainable practices in its operations. This includes investing in more efficient and less polluting technologies, reusing and recycling waste generated during the process, and implementing measures for biodiversity conservation and the recovery of degraded areas. The methodology employed for the development of this scientific research involved a qualitative approach, with the research procedure consisting of conducting a literature review. The overall objective of this research was to elaborate a literature review on sustainability and ornamental rock processing. Ultimately, the research highlights that the existence of clear environmental regulations and companies' compliance with these regulations are crucial to prevent abuses and ensure environmental protection. It is also of utmost importance to ensure the application of appropriate penalties for those who do not comply with the established norms.

Spatially non-stationary response of habitat quality to land use activities in World's protected areas over 20 years

Land use activities play an essential role in habitat degradation and restoration. As priority zones for global habitat conservation, studying the impact of land use activities on habitat quality (HQ) in the World Protected Areas (WDPA) has great importance. However, insights into land use activities and HQ in the WDPA remain scarce and their relationship is still unclear. Here, we assessed land use activities and HQ in the WDPA over the past 20 years and analyzed the impact of land use activities on HQ. The results showed that forestland was the dominant land use type in the WDPA and that the area of forestland, bare land, and water area decreased while the area of other land use types increased during the study period. Land use change in protected areas in different continents shows great differences. Land use intensity (LUI) in the WDPA increased over the 20 years, but HQ remained largely unchanged. LUI increased but HQ decreased was the main change type of grid cells in the WDPA. The bivariate spatial autocorrelation results showed that High-Low (high HQ and low LUI) clusters were the dominant clustering type in the WDPA, while Low-High (low HQ and high LUI) clusters were the least represented clustering type. The regression results showed that LUI tended to have a negative effect on HQ in forested areas and a positive effect on HQ in desert, permafrost areas. These findings can provide a reference for effective land use differentiation control measures and biodiversity conservation measures in the WDPA.

Taxonomic Structure and Diversity of Benthic Diatoms (Bacillariophyta) in the Northern Shelf of the Black Sea

The key role of benthic diatoms in coastal ecosystems highlights the relevance of studying their biodiversity and developing integrated biodiversity conservation measures. Benthic diatom richness in the northern part of the Black Sea was estimated based on both published data and our own data. The checklist of benthic diatoms includes 1100 species and intraspecific taxa, 953 species, 149 genera, 61 families, 32 orders, and 3 classes of Bacillariophyta. More than 280 species and intraspecific taxa, as well as 8 genera new to the diatom flora of the Black Sea and 7 species new to science, were revealed. An interregional analysis of the diversity of benthic Bacillariophyta along the coasts of Bulgaria, Romania, and Crimea, as well as the northwestern and northeastern parts of the Black Sea shelf, was carried out using the Taxonomic Distinctness Indices (TaxDI). The lowest TaxDI value for Crimea was closest to the average value expected for the Black Sea diatom flora, indicating a large proportion of polyspecies branches in the taxocene structure, which resulted in the maximum species richness (species/genus = 7) and led to a decrease in the vertical evenness of hierarchical tree. On the contrary, the highest TaxDI value was detected off the Romanian coast, which was caused by the significant proportion of mono- and oligospecies branches and minimal species saturation in the taxocene structure (species/genus = 4). We also identified some species with a high taxonomic exclusivity rank. If these species disappear, the entire architectonics of the Black Sea hierarchical tree of Bacillariophyta may be significantly altered. Such region-specific species are given the highest protection priority since they have great importance for gene pool conservation.

A Comprehensive Review of the Impacts of Climate Change on Salmon: Strengths and Weaknesses of the Literature by Life Stage

As we confront novel environmental challenges, a full understanding of the physical and biological processes that govern species responses to climate change will help maintain biodiversity and support conservation measures that are more robust to irreducible uncertainty. However, climate impacts are so complex, and the literature on salmon and trout is so vast that researchers and decision makers scramble to make sense of it all. Therefore, we conducted a systematic literature review of climate impacts on salmon and anadromous trout as a resource for stakeholders, managers, and researchers. We reviewed studies published from 2010 to 2021 that address climate impacts on these fish and organized them in a database of 1169 physical and 1853 biological papers. Papers are labeled with keywords across eight categories related to subject matter and study methods. We compared the literature by biological process and life stage and used these comparisons to assess strengths and weaknesses. We then summarized expected phenotypic and genetic responses and management actions by life stage. Overall, we found the largest research gaps related to species interactions, behavioral responses, and effects that carry over across life stages. With this collection of the literature, we can better apply scarce conservation resources, fill knowledge gaps, and make informed decisions that do not ignore uncertainty.

An assessment of silvopastoral systems condition and their capacity to generate ecosystem services in the Colombian Amazon

ABSTRACT Livestock production in the Colombian Amazonia is typically dual-purpose (meat and milk) based on silvopastoral systems. We aimed to assess how the ecological condition of these systems correspond to the ecosystem services they generate based on an assessment of farmers’ knowledge of the tree species. We evaluated 159 paddocks. We recorded 143 tree species from 37 families, with 22 species being most common (relative occurrence frequency = 57%). Based on tree species composition, we characterized four states of silvopastoral condition (hereon ‘paddock condition types’) using clustering techniques: (i) High structural complexity and highest tree species richness (HSCR); (ii) High species diversity and tall trees (HDTT); (iii) High species diversity and medium-sized trees (HDMT); (iv) Structurally simple with lowest species richness (SSLR). Tree species richness was significantly higher in HSCR (11.70 ± 1.47 per paddock), than in SSLR (2.86 ± 0.80). HDTT and HDMT had similar richness, with intermediate values (5.55 ± 0.82 and 6.38 ± 0.51, respectively). Farmers appreciate a number of ecosystem services provided by the silvopastoral system, but a limited number of tree species are valued. This indicates the need for additional biodiversity conservation measures in these landscapes, including measures to improve knowledge about the value of tree species with few occurrences or low densities.

Grazing alters the relationships between species diversity and biomass during community succession in a semiarid grassland

The relationships between biodiversity and ecosystem functions (BEF) are crucial for ecosystem management. However, little is known about how grazing affects BEF relationships in the context of ecological succession. Here, using a 5-year experiment in a semiarid grassland of the Loess Plateau, China, we mainly focused on how grazing affected the relationships between plant species diversity and aboveground biomass (AGB) and explored the underlying mechanisms behind the relationships. In addition, we compared the plant dynamics of community composition and structure under no-grazing and grazing treatments during succession. We found that the plant species diversity-AGB relationship shifted from a negative-linear pattern in no-grazing to a humped-back model in grazing during plant community succession, suggesting that grazing could regulate dominant species and alter the availability of light resources to suppress competitive exclusion during succession. In addition, changes in annual plants over time played crucial roles in the BEF relationships. The increase in annual Salsola collina in this study, which also alters multiple mechanisms of plant interaction, had a significant effect on the negative-linear relationship both with and without grazing. On average, compared to no-grazing treatment, grazing significantly decreased the plant community density (39.53 %), cover (16.97 %), height (7.85 %), and AGB (9.35 %), but increased plant diversity, including species richness and the Shannon–Wiener index, and especially dramatically enhanced the Shannon–Wiener index (ranging from 1.55 to 2.13). These results underline the close association between grazing and the dynamics of plant communities in semiarid grasslands during succession. In particular, our findings further reveal grazing-dependent relationships between diversity and AGB, which have significant implications for the management and biodiversity conservation measures of semiarid grassland ecosystems.

The contrasting response of cavity‐nesting bees, wasps and their natural enemies to biodiversity conservation measures

Abstract The implementation of agri‐environmental schemes (AES) is a major tool to sustain biodiversity and ecosystem services in European agricultural landscapes. The benefit of different types and features of novel biodiversity measures needs to be assessed in order to successfully conserve insect communities in agroecosystems. We set up trap nests in 3 × 3 km landscapes in Germany, in which farmers implemented different novel biodiversity measures. We tested the effect of different features of the closest three biodiversity measures (i.e. distance to measures, measures' area, measures' quality) and of the proximity to forest and oilseed rape and of landscape connectivity on the abundance and species richness of cavity‐nesting bees, wasps and their natural enemies. We found total cavity‐nesting insect abundances to increase with measures' quality and to decline with increasing distance to oilseed rape and forest. Parasitism and mortality rates declined with edge density. Cavity‐nesting bees were not affected by biodiversity measures. Total wasp and herbivore‐predating wasp abundances increased in proximity to biodiversity measures. The abundance and species richness of all wasps, natural enemies and spider‐predating wasps declined with increasing distance to forest. Cavity‐nesting wasps benefit from biodiversity measures, while effects on solitary bees might only be detectable after several years after measure establishment. The proximity to forest is a major factor promoting insects as forest edges provide food, nesting sites and shelter. We emphasise the need for long‐term insect monitoring and an increasing focus of future AES on the creation of nesting habitats for effective insect conservation.

The Swedish green infrastructure policy as a policy assemblage: What does it do for biodiversity conservation?

AbstractGreen infrastructure (GI) is increasingly used in policymaking to promote biodiversity and enhance ecosystem services through the protection, creation, restoration and connection of natural and man‐made green areas.The EU Commission adopted in 2013, the concept as a strategy. When member states apply the policy, it is translated into specific bureaucratic and political systems, creating different ‘policy assemblages’ of ideas and institutional features.We analyse the Swedish GI policy to draw conclusions about how it has been assembled in one particular member state and what that particular assemblage will imply for biodiversity conservation. In combination with understanding policies as assemblages, we use the ‘What's the problem represented to be’‐approach as method.We show that the Swedish GI policy assemblage consists of a mix of policy ideas developed in Sweden and the EU. Despite the current strong focus on biodiversity conservation, the notion of land's multifunctionality, characterizing the EU strategy and the possibility to conserve biodiversity on land used for purposes other than conservation increasingly influence the Swedish policy as it is formed.Although the policy has the potential to mainstream biodiversity conservation measures across different sectors, based on our analysis of current discourse, its implementation will likely promote GI measures less disruptive to existing land use activities, making its capacity to halt biodiversity loss marginal.Read the freePlain Language Summaryfor this article on the Journal blog.

A new strategy for improving the accuracy of forest aboveground biomass estimates in an alpine region based on multi-source remote sensing

ABSTRACT Spatially explicit information on the distribution of dominant tree species groups and aboveground biomass (AGB) in forested areas is essential for developing targeted forest management and biodiversity conservation measures, as well as assessing forest carbon sequestration capacity. There is a shortage of continuously updated 30-m spatial resolution products for mapping dominant tree species groups. The vast majority of remote sensing-based AGB estimation approaches have relatively low accuracy for dominant tree species groups or forest types and are unsuitable for AGB modeling. Therefore, this study aims to develop an integrated framework that considers the phenological characteristics of different tree species to improve the mapping accuracies of forest dominant tree groups and corresponding AGB estimates. Thirty-meter resolution maps of dominant tree species groups were created using machine learning algorithms and phenological parameters. Features extracted from optical and radar images and phenological characteristics were used to construct AGB estimation models in a temporally consistent manner to improve the AGB estimation accuracy and perform dynamic AGB monitoring. The proposed method accurately characterized the dynamic distribution of the dominant tree species groups in the study area. The traditional AGB model that does not consider different forest types or species had an R2 value of 0.52, whereas the proposed model that considers phenology and forest types had an R2 value of 0.67. This result indicates that incorporating information on phenology and dominant species improves the accuracy of AGB estimations. The AGB in most regions was 30–55 t/ha, showing that the majority of the forests were young or middle-aged stands, and the areal percentage of AGB greater than 30 t/ha increased during the study period, suggesting an improvement in forest quality. Furthermore, the oak AGB was the highest, indicating that oak afforestation should be encouraged to enhance the carbon sequestration capacity of future forest ecosystems. The results provide new insights for researchers and managers to understand the trends of forest development and forest health, as well as technical information and a database for formulating more rational forest management strategies.

Improving models of coordination incentives for biodiversity conservation by fitting a multi-agent simulation model to a lab experiment

Coordination incentives (CI) like the agglomeration bonus that reward the spatial agglomeration (or other spatial patterns) of biodiversity conservation measures are gaining increasing attention. Experiments on CI, accompanied by statistical analyses, reveal insights into the behaviour of human subjects. However, the scope of statistical models is limited and one may, as in other sciences like physics or ecology, gain additional insights by fitting mechanistic process models to the experimental data. I present the first application of this type in the context of CI and fit a multi-agent simulation model to a seminal experiment on the agglomeration bonus. Comparing two basic approaches for the decision making of the model agents, reinforcement learning and using expectations about the future, reveals that the latter is much better able to replicate the observations of the experiment. Improved models of agent behaviour are indispensable in the model-based assessment of CI for the conservation of biodiversity.

Importance of grassy and forest non-crop habitat islands for overwintering of ground-dwelling arthropods in agricultural landscapes: A multi-taxa approach

Non-crop habitats are supposed to provide valuable resources to beneficial arthropods inhabiting agricultural landscapes during both the growing and winter seasons. Unfortunately, studies focused on the performance of non-crop habitats during the winter period are much less abundant, despite their importance for efficient biodiversity conservation measures. In this study, we assessed the distribution of ground-dwelling arthropods overwintering on arable land as well as the boundaries and interiors of neighbouring grassy and forest non-crop habitat islands. Myriapods, spiders, carabid and rove beetles were collected using a combination of quadrat sampling (soil sampling) and pitfall trapping. Our results revealed the importance of both non-crop habitat islands for overwintering arthropods, though slightly higher abundance and species richness were recorded in forest compared to grassy islands. Abundance and species richness of overwintering arthropods were lower on arable land for all the investigated taxa. Carabid and rove beetles overwintered more on non-crop boundaries than interiors, whereas spiders and myriapods used both boundaries and interiors. Landscape composition had stronger effects on carabids and myriapods collected with pitfall traps, which were benefitted in landscapes with high non-crop habitat cover. Grassy and forest non-crop habitat islands hosted different assemblages of myriapods, carabids and rove beetles, highlighting the complementarity of both non-crop habitat types for ground-dwelling arthropods. We recommend to preserve all existing non-crop habitat patches and to create new permanent non-crop habitat patches in intensively managed agricultural landscapes, as even relatively small non-crop habitat islands within the cultivated land can play a relevant role for overwintering arthropods.

Backing biodiversity? German consumers’ views on a multi-level biodiversity-labeling scheme for beef from grazing-based production systems

Biodiversity loss driven by intensive livestock farming constitutes a major threat to the resilience of food systems. Grazing-based beef production, by contrast, supports ecosystem services and biodiversity conservation. Communicating these benefits to consumers is vital to stimulate demand for pasture-raised beef, with labels being a key means of conveying such credence attributes. Despite extensive research on eco-labels and sustainability certification, however, we know little about consumer perceptions of labels designed to certify and highlight the biodiversity benefits of cattle products. To address this gap, we conducted six audio-only online focus group discussions with forty buyers of beef in Germany to explore consumer perceptions of a multi-level labeling system of labeling designed to differentiate between the conservation measures applied in pasture-raised beef production. Our findings indicate significant challenges for the implementation of such labeling, including low levels of understanding of biodiversity among consumers. Most participants struggled to discriminate between different levels of biodiversity conservation measures and placed little value on the biodiversity benefits of different products. Gaining trust in certification and control procedures is problematic due to the profusion of labeling schemes on the market, especially given consumers' time pressures. However, our findings also highlight consumers' appreciation for biodiversity conservation at local level and higher levels of trust in short supply chains, suggesting opportunities for selling pasture-raised beef at local level. The differences we identify in consumers’ use of labeling can inform further segmentation research and targeted communications to market beef from grazing-based production systems.

Diclidophora luscae (Monogenea: Diclidophoridae) in pouting,Trisopterus luscus (Linnaeus, 1758) from the northeast Atlantic; epidemiology, morphology, molecular and phylogenetic analysis.

Diclidophora (Monogenea) species are gill parasites with a stenoxenic specificity occurring only in Gadiformes. Epidemiological, morphological, molecular and phylogenetic studies were performed on 594 Diclidophora specimens collected from 213 Trisopterus luscus captured in the northeast Atlantic off the Portuguese coast during 2012, 2013 and 2020. Prevalence, parasite abundance and infection intensity were determined. Positive correlation between fish weight and length and infection intensity was observed. The effects of preservation on the parasite morphological features were studied, highlighting that specimen's identification should be reinforced by molecular studies. A sequence of D. luscae capelanii from T. capelanus captured in the Mediterranean Sea included in the 28S rDNA molecular analysis was nested within a robust D. luscae clade. Data analysis suggested that this species is in fact D. luscae, which is compatible with T. luscus and T. capelanus. The identity of fish hosts was confirmed by barcoding. For the first time, data on the infection parameters is shown, highlighting the importance of including this parasite in the monitoring plans for a holistic approach with possible effects for the management of pouting resources aiming of attaining sustainable development and biodiversity conservation measures, according to the 14th objective of the 2030 agenda.

New Insights into a Mediterranean Sea Benthic Habitat: High Diversity of Epiphytic Bryozoan Assemblages on Phyllophora crispa (Rhodophyta) Mats

With its geographically isolated location and geological history, the Mediterranean Sea harbors well-known biodiversity hotspots, such as Posidonia oceanica seagrass meadows. Recently, long-living mats formed by the fleshy red alga Phyllophora crispa have been described to be associated with a high diversity of sessile invertebrates in the Tyrrhenian Sea. One of the key taxa among these sessile invertebrates are bryozoans: their abundance, diversity, and spatial distribution in P. crispa mats represent a gap in scientific knowledge. Thus, we conducted a pilot study on bryozoan assemblages associated with P. crispa mats around Giglio Island (Tuscan Archipelago, Italy) in 2018, followed by a comparative study on four sites distributed around the island in the subsequent year, 2019. We compared these findings to bryozoan abundance and diversity on P. oceanica shoots and leaves during the second expedition. The findings revealed more than 46 families, with a significantly higher number of taxa identified in P. crispa mats (33) than in P. oceanica meadows (29). The Shannon diversity index was similar between P. crispa and P. oceanica shoots, while Pielou’s evenness index was lower in P. crispa mats. The most abundant families reported across all habitats were Crisiidae, Aetidae, and Lichenoporidae; but the most abundant family on P. crispa was Chlidoniidae (Chlidonia pyriformis). The assemblages associated with P. crispa differed among sites, with higher abundances but lower diversity on the exposed southernmost site. The total bryozoan abundance was significantly higher on P. crispa (average 2.83 × 106 ± 1.99 × 106 colonies per m2 seafloor) compared to P. oceanica meadows (average 0.54 × 106 ± 0.34 × 106 colonies per m2 seafloor). Our results show a high diversity of bryozoans on P. crispa thalli compared to P. oceanica meadows, which was consistent throughout the study. These findings confirm the value of the red alga-generated habitat for associated bryozoans and may have implications for future biodiversity assessments and conservation measures.

Latitudinal Diversity Gradient in the Changing World: Retrospectives and Perspectives

The latitudinal diversity gradient (LDG) is one of the most extensive and important biodiversity patterns on the Earth. Various studies have established that species diversity increases with higher taxa numbers from the polar to the tropics. Studies of multicellular biotas have supported the LDG patterns from land (e.g., plants, animals, forests, wetlands, grasslands, fungi, and so forth) to oceans (e.g., marine organisms from freshwater invertebrates, continental shelve, open ocean, even to the deep sea invertebrates). So far, there are several hypotheses proposed to explore the diversity patterns and mechanisms of LDG, however, there has been no consensus on the underlying causes of LDG over the past few decades. Thus, we reviewed the progress of LDG studies in recent years. Although several explanations for the LDG have been proposed, these hypotheses are only based on species richness, evolution and the ecosystems. In this review, we summarize the effects of evolution and ecology on the LDG patterns to synthesize the formation mechanisms of the general biodiversity distribution patterns. These intertwined factors from ecology and evolution in the LDG are generally due to the wider distribution of tropical areas, which hinders efforts to distinguish their relative contributions. However, the mechanisms of LDG always engaged controversies, especially in such a context that the human activity and climate change has affected the biodiversity. With the development of molecular biology, more genetic/genomic data are available to facilitate the estimation of global biodiversity patterns with regard to climate, latitude, and other factors. Given that human activity and climate change have inevitably impacted on biodiversity loss, biodiversity conservation should focus on the change in LDG pattern. Using large-scale genetic/genomic data to disentangle the diversity mechanisms and patterns of LDG, will provide insights into biodiversity conservation and management measures. Future perspectives of LDG with integrative genetic/genomic, species, evolution, and ecosystem diversity patterns, as well as the mechanisms that apply to biodiversity conservation, are discussed. It is imperative to explore integrated approaches for recognizing the causes of LDG in the context of rapid loss of diversity in a changing world.

CONTRIBUTION OF PRIVATE LANDS TO BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION OF LATVIA. CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES

INTRODUCTION
 A significant amount of biodiversity occurs on private lands of Latvia. About 88% of grassland habitats and 19% of forest habitats of EU importance are located on private properties. Most of the biodiversity values are located outside the Natura 2000 network and other types of protected areas. In order to reach biodiversity conservation goals of the European Union and Latvia, it is important to integrate private lands into nature conservation strategies as well. There are different mechanisms in Latvia available for biodiversity conservation on private land: protected nature territories; micro-reserves; general legal requirements of nature protection; support payments under the Rural Development Programme; tax exemptions for landowners in protected areas, and others. Economic restrictions related to biodiversity conservation measures also tend to create tension in society and cause socio-economic conflicts that might influence the success of reaching biodiversity goals.
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 In order to explore private landowners’ attitudes towards biodiversity conservation measures on their land, a literature review was carried out including the analysis of research articles, reports of projects, reports of landowner surveys, and others. Only studies from Baltic Sea region countries were reviewed, selecting 18 articles and reports analysing factors influencing landowners’ attitudes towards biodiversity conservation on private lands. Identified factors and conservation approaches in other countries were analysed in the context of nature conservation system of Latvia, discussing the possible improvements of existing conservation strategies.
 RESULTS
 Private landowners are a very heterogeneous community, with various attitudes towards biodiversity conservation measures. There are many factors influencing landowners’ attitudes regarding biodiversity conservation on private lands, e.g., property size, field of education and education level, general conservation values of the landowner, income proportion from land management, and others. In general, landowners of Latvia support biodiversity conservation measures on private land; however, they are concerned about possible related restrictions on economic activity and the respecting of their rights to own property. Landowners highlight the importance of effective compensation mechanisms, respectful communication with environmental institutions, and landowners’ participation in conservation related decision-making.
 DISCUSSION
 In the process of searching for improvements of biodiversity conservation strategies, it is important to take into account the needs and concerns of private landowners. According to analysis, there is a potential and demand for voluntary biodiversity conservation mechanisms in Latvia, which could complement the existing (regulatory) biodiversity conservation strategies. Significant proportion of landowners would be ready to take an active part in the biodiversity conservation process if an effective support system (consultative and financial) were provided.