Biocentric Ethics Research Articles

The moral status of animals: Degrees of moral status and the interest-based approach

This paper addresses the issue of the moral status of non-human animals, or the question whether sentient animals are morally considerable. The arguments for and against the moral status of animals are discussed, above all the argument from marginal cases. It is argued that sentient animals have moral status based on their having interests in their experiential well-being, but that there are degrees of moral status. Two interest-based approaches are presented and discussed: DeGrazia?s view that sentient animals have interests in continuing to live, and that their interests should be granted moral weight; and McMahan?s TRIA which similarly postulates that animals have interests and that in a given situation we should compare the human and animal interests at stake. Finally, the paper concludes that the anthropocentric approach to animal ethics should be abandoned in favour of the biocentric ethics.

Fundamentos Éticos de las Políticas Públicas de la Guarda Responsable de Animales y la Pandemia de la COVID-19

Este trabajo trata de una nueva propuesta que es el concepto de la guarda responsable de la naturaleza y de los animales, es decir, una evolución de la noción de tenencia responsable de mascotas. Los retos planteados por la pandemia de la COVID-19 señalan la importancia de establecer esta nueva expansión del concepto de guarda responsable que, teniendo como premisas teóricas no solo la ética patocéntrica, sino también una ética biocéntrica del cuidado, buscaría por lo tanto extender el círculo de protección ofrecido por el concepto de guarda responsable de mascotas que avanzaría de los animales de compañía para abarcar a los demás seres sentientes y la naturaleza en general, una expansión que se llevaría a cabo bajo el prisma holístico de la salud única, o sea, ambiental, animal y humana. Así, la guarda responsable se entendería desde una doble perspectiva en la que se consideraría tanto un conjunto de deberes jurídicos que los guardianes tendrían para con los animales y el medio ambiente que estarían bajo su protección, así como un conjunto de políticas públicas que el Estado debería llevar a cabo a favor de estos animales y de la naturaleza en su conjunto.

The Tragic Death of a Utah Goblin: Conservation and the Problem of Abiotic Nature

ABSTRACT Biocentric (life-centered) and ecocentric (ecosystem-centered) ethics offer a rich discourse on protecting biotic communities – defending conservation with inherent value tied to life. A problem arises from these views if mountains, glaciers, canyons, and other abiotic natural objects (often foci of conservation efforts) matter in and of themselves. Abiotic nature helps demonstrate and delineate the boundaries of environmental ethics grounded in life-based axiology. A series of thought experiments suggest that orienting conservation as a question of obligation offers an additional avenue to explore and defend the protection of abiotic nature; agreements and property rights plausibly ground moral obligations to conserve abiotic nature.

Triglavska roža in Zlatorog med simboliko in stvarnostjo<br>Triglav Rose and Zlatorog in Their Symbolism and Reality</br>

The Tale of Zlatorog speaks of a human-nature interrelationship, close to today’s environmentalism. It has been highly popular in Slovenia and abroad since collected in the Julian Alps and published in 1868. In the first part of this paper, we investigate the Triglav rose, particularly, which real plant species might be reflected in the story. In the second part, we compare the drama with real processes in ecosystems. As reflected in the narrative, humans did not only recognize creatures’ supporting roles: they comprehended the interconnectedness that sustains life and survival. While tales acted as the inspiration for ethical teaching, we assume that artists used the dynamics developed in the Tale of Zlatorog and alike for transferring the reverence for life and sustaining biocentric ethics.

A Church as Kalafong: Ecclesiology According to Gabriel Molehe Setiloane

The interest of this article focuses on Gabriel Molehe Setiloane’s views about the ecclesiological make-up in the context of African theology. This focus is relevant as it has been argued that Setiloane pushed for the importance of African theological discourse (Masoga 2012a). Some of the sensitive but also critical expressions by Setiloane include statements such as Motho ke Modimo, which is translated into English as “a human being is God/Divine”. It has been Setiloane’s theological interest to develop what he called the “African Divinity discourse”, encompassing areas of life such as: ethics and morality in secular contexts; family life; civil authority; “riches and poverties”; the land question; crime; leadership styles; the functioning of the corporate sector in terms of ubuntu; and bio-centric ethics. This article aims to introduce Setiloane’s voice on the idea of the church. For this purpose, it was decided that the two terms, “church” and “ecclesiology” would be used to drive the theoretical framework and practice perspectives, both of which will become clearer in the primary data used in this article. For Setiloane, his calling as a pastor, and the church in which he was called to, had much to do with kalafo (African healing) and bongaka (a Motswana initiated healer). In this case, congregants were balwetsi (patients) looking to the ngaka (traditional healer) of their malwetsi (diseases). I had the privilege to have been entrusted with unpublished articles by the late Setiloane before he passed away, as well as the honour of holding formal and informal interviews with him. This research article made use of the Thematic Content Analysis (TCA) approach to broach the recorded data in the form of formal interviews, informal discussions, stories, and statements.

Is formal environmental education friendly to nature? Environmental ethics in science textbooks for primary school pupils in Poland

Due to the increased interest in ecology, global warming and numerous environmental problems, ecological issues are becoming extremely important in education. Many researchers and thinkers believe that solutions to environmental problems are affected by the environmental ethics adopted. This article identifies which of the three branches of environmental ethics (anthropocentric, biocentric and holistic ethics) are present in formal environmental education in Poland. This has been achieved by analysing the content of textbooks used by science teachers in the fourth grade of elementary schools (Stage II of education). The results show that (moderate) anthropocentric ethics is dominant in the content of formal environmental education, while biocentric ethics is less frequent and there is also some focus on holistic ethics and the declaration that man is part of nature.

A church as Kalafong: ecclesiology according to Gabriel Molehe Setiloane

The interest of this article focuses on Gabriel Molehe Setiloane’s views about the ecclesiological make-up in the context of African theology. This focus is relevant as it has been argued that Setiloane pushed for the importance of African theological discourse (Masoga 2012a). Some of the sensitive but also critical expressions by Setiloane include statements such as Motho ke Modimo, which is translated into English as “a human being is God/Divine”. It has been Setiloane’s theological interest to develop what he called the “African Divinity discourse”, encompassing areas of life such as: ethics and morality in secular contexts; family life; civil authority; “riches and poverties”; the land question; crime; leadership styles; the functioning of the corporate sector in terms of ubuntu; and bio-centric ethics. This article aims to introduce Setiloane’s voice on the idea of the church. For this purpose, it was decided that the two terms, “church” and “ecclesiology” would be used to drive the theoretical framework and practice perspectives, both of which will become clearer in the primary data used in this article. For Setiloane, his calling as a pastor, and the church in which he was called to, had much to do with kalafo (African healing) and bongaka (a Motswana initiated healer). In this case, congregants were balwetsi (patients) looking to the ngaka (traditional healer) of their malwetsi (diseases). I had the privilege to have been entrusted with unpublished articles by the late Setiloane before he passed away, as well as the honour of holding formal and informal interviews with him. This research article made use of the Thematic Content Analysis (TCA) approach to broach the recorded data in the form of formal interviews, informal discussions, stories, and statements.

W poszukiwaniu etyki środowiskowej dla teorii wychowania ekologicznego

Undoubtedly, the contemporary problems of ecological philosophy and eco- pedagogy deal with questions about the real presence of the philosophical bases for the ecological upbringing of children and youth. Therefore, can different conceptions of environmental ethics (e.g., anthropocentric ethics, bio-centric ethics, holistic ethics) be found in the contemporary theory of ecological upbringing? A partial answer to the question can be provided by educational programs implemented in the process of formal education (e.g. content analysis of school textbooks in specific subjects), as well as educational activities undertaken by the selected centers in the system of non-formal education (content analysis of teaching materials). The directory of ecological values distinguished from the tested materials can also be used in the search for answers to this question. This directory describes the man/ natural environment relationship, while these ecological values are strongly articulated in certain eco-ethics positions.

Uma ética ambiental: a partir da natureza como um movimento vital

A selection of articles from the contemporary environmental bioethics produced some questions and debates on the biocentric ethics. Two axes of analysis are developed: the first one shows the relationship between the moral agent and patient with the universalization of moral maxims, including all living beings, rational and non-rational, in moral considerability . The living beings are inter-related and need one another, but only humans are capable of moral judgments and, therefore, can be considered as moral agents, although it should be considered as moral from the patient’s point of view. The second axis deals with the interest in maintaining life, which encompasses this reciprocal relationship, where killing another living being can become an operational issue of natural survival, whether right or wrong, and the natural and human values are inserted into these concerns. We conclude that the struggle to preserve the environment and respect for nature must go hand in hand with the possibility of the social emancipation of mankind. The construction of a new moral agent also involves construction of a new social life, which is where the benefit is - at the center of the philosophical thinking and attitudes of the moral agent.

Uma ética ambiental: a partir da natureza como um movimento vital

A selection of articles from the contemporary environmental bioethics produced some questions and debates on the biocentric ethics. Two axes of analysis are developed: the first one shows the relationship between the moral agent and patient with the universalization of moral maxims, including all living beings, rational and non-rational, in moral considerability . The living beings are inter-related and need one another, but only humans are capable of moral judgments and, therefore, can be considered as moral agents, although it should be considered as moral from the patient’s point of view. The second axis deals with the interest in maintaining life, which encompasses this reciprocal relationship, where killing another living being can become an operational issue of natural survival, whether right or wrong, and the natural and human values are inserted into these concerns. We conclude that the struggle to preserve the environment and respect for nature must go hand in hand with the possibility of the social emancipation of mankind. The construction of a new moral agent also involves construction of a new social life, which is where the benefit is - at the center of the philosophical thinking and attitudes of the moral agent.

Individualistic Environmental Ethics

333 According to standard anthropocentric, zoocentric, and biocentric ethics, the intrinsic value of a species, ecosystem, or other ecological whole derives entirely from the well-being of the individual organisms that it contains. Ecocentrism, on the other hand, values the whole not only for the well-being of its parts, but also for certain other properties such as biological diversity and ecological integrity. This crucial difference gives ecocentrism alone enough moral force for a thorough critique of global biodiversity loss.

Toward A Theocentric Ecological Ethic of Inclusive Well-being

Grappling with the ecological crisis as a crisis of culture and also an opportunity for emancipation, this paper attempts to suggest a theocentric ecological ethic of inclusive well-being as one of Christian environmental ethics in consideration of a methodology of hermeneutical reconstruction with reflective equilibrium. Firstly, it reviews paradigm change in environmental ethics and then confirms the contextual and provisional nature of ethical practice and theories. Secondly, this paper explores a hermeneutical reconstruction of five major moral grounds or theories for ecological ethics with reflective equilibrium and then affirms that no single ground or theory should be foundational. Rather the foundation lies in critical correlation between ethical practice and theories. Thirdly, it suggests a theocentric ecological ethic of inclusive well-being, which is its moral criterion by which moral judgments and theological sin are measured. In recognition of its inevitable moral ambiguity in the competing realities of life, its moral principle of inclusive well-being provides us with practical awareness that we might be drawing a narrower line of well-being than is necessary in specific contexts. Then, it challenges us to draw a more inclusive range of well-being for the sake of the good of creation and God more so than conventional anthropocentric or biocentric environmental ethics.

O “novo” direito à àgua no constitucionalismo da América Latina

The article analyses some elements of the Andean cosmovision that originated the New Latin-American Constitutionalism, and specially, the right to the water. In this new culture, oriented to the Buen Vivir (well living), the human right to the goods indispensable to the life is seen as a common inheritance, hence projecting itself to all living creatures, as well as to the future generations. This understanding represents a paradigmatic change already present in some Constitutions, as from Bolivia and Equator, assuming the understanding of the community in harmony, respect and equilibrium with life, celebrating the Pachamama (Mother Earth) from which all the living creatures are a part. In this perspective, having the Biocentric Ethics as a fundament, they bound the right to water to the right to the nature, orienting its management to the Buen Vivir. In this context, the political changes and the new social processes of fighting in the Latina-American States gave birth not only to new Constitutions, resulting in new social actors, plural realities and challenging biocentric practices, but, equally, considering the diversity of the cultures from the minorities, the uncontested strength from the indigenous peoples from the continent, the sustainable development policies and the protection of the natural common resources, point to a new constitutionalist paradigm, a Pluralistic Constitutionalism – synthesis of an indigenous, autochthonous, hybrid Constitutionalism.

Johnson, Lawrence E: A life-centered approach to bioethics: biocentric ethics

In A Life-Centered Approach to Bioethics, Lawrence Johnson extends the discussion he began in A Morally Deep World (1991), except now the focus is on bioethics—or what he calls biocentric ethics (BCE)—rather than on environmental ethics. Johnson makes what he considers a non-trivial distinction between anthropocentric bioethics, which places humans at the heart of bioethical discussion and which he claims represents the common approach of most bioethicists, and BCE, which places life, of all organisms, at the core of bioethical deliberation. The distinction is non-trivial because BCE does not isolate or individuate humans from one another or from their environment but interconnects and integrates them in both social and ecological terms. Briefly, Johnson predicates BCE upon a foundation composed of the following notions: life as process, health as maintaining life processes, and the moral significance of living organisms proportional to their interest in continuing their life processes. After a brief introductory chapter that examines the nature of bioethics and the issue of moral skepticism and canvasses BCE’s major themes, Johnson provides the reader—in four chapters—with the background material required for analyzing conventional bioethical issues, such as euthanasia, abortion, genetic engineering, and reproductive cloning, among others, from a BCE perspective. In chapter 2, he discusses the traditional notion of self in terms of the rational, which he claims is often responsible for the confusion emanating from bioethical pronouncements. Rather than a hierarchical approach to the self with reason at the pinnacle, he advocates a systems approach consisting of complex interactions and relationships that include even the spiritual or transcendental. BCE’s underlying approach is thus holistic in contrast to the traditional biomedical assumption of reductionism, which is key to contemporary bioethics’s emphasis on autonomy. In the next chapter, he reviews the two dominant post-Enlightenment approaches to ethics: utilitarianism

Environmental ethics: An African understanding

Global concerns about the current environmental cri sis have culminated into some controversial environmental ethical theories, i.e., normative env ironmental ethics, sentientist ethics, biocentric ethics, ecocentric ethics and eco-feminist ethics. One of the fundamental underlying features connecting these environmental ethical theories is their grounding in Western perspectives and cultural experiences. Given that environmental conc erns are global concerns, and that the imperative of environmental ethics is challenging t hose life-threatening concerns, critical explorations of environmental ethics need to go bey ond the Western horizon. But with respect to the African perspective to environmental ethics and the people’s cultural understanding of the environmental crisis, little has been done in this penultimate area. However, Segun Ogungbemi and Godfrey Tangwa have pioneered philosophical discussions on environmental ethics from an African vantage point. Hence, Ogungbemi defends what he calls “ethics of nature-relatedness,” while Tangwa proposes “eco-bio-communitarianism” as a definitive theory of an African orientation to environmental ethics. This paper is therefore a contribution to the consolidation of an African orientation to environmental ethics thro ugh a critique and reconstruction of some of the misrepresentations of the African perspective to th e environment, implicit in the arguments of Ogungbemi and Tangwa.

A life-centered approach to bioethics: biocentric ethics

Approaches bioethics on the basis of a conception of life and what is needed for the affirmation of its quality in the most encompassing sense. Johnson applies this conception to discussions of controversial issues in bioethics including euthanasia, abortion, cloning and genetic engineering. His emphasis is not on providing definitive solutions to all bioethical issues but on developing an approach to coping with them that can also help us deal with new issues as they emerge. The foundation of this discussion is an extensive examination of the nature of the self and its good and of various approaches to ethics. His bioethic is integrally related to his well-known work on environmental philosophy. The book also applies these principles on an individual level, offering a user-friendly discussion of how to deal with ethical slippery slopes and how and where to draw the line when dealing with difficult questions of bioethics.

An African Understanding of Environmental Ethics

Global concerns about the current environmental crisis have culminated in some controversial environmental ethical theories, among which are normative environmental ethics, sentientist ethics, biocentric ethics, ecocentric ethics and eco-feminist ethics. One of the underlying features connecting these environmental ethical theories is their grounding in Western perspectives and cultural experiences. Given that environmental concerns are global, and that the goal of environmental ethics is to address those concerns, critical explorations of environmental ethics need to go beyond the Western horizon. Nevertheless, very few African scholars have investigated the African people’s understanding of the current environmental crisis, and the African perspective on environmental ethics. However, Segun Ogungbemi and Godfrey Tangwa have pioneered philosophical discussions on environmental ethics from an African point of view. Ogungbemi defends what he calls “ethics of nature-relatedness”, while Tangwa proposes “eco-bio-communitarianism”. This paper is a contribution to the consolidation of an African orientation in environmental ethics through a critique and reconstruction of the African perspective on the environment as presented, separately, by Ogungbemi and Tangwa. Key Words Environmental ethics; ethics of nature-relatedness; eco-bio-communitarianism

Ethology applied to animal ethics

According to modern animal welfare legislation, animals should be protected from suffering and lasting harm not for the benefit of us humans as in earlier anthropocentric conceptions, but in their own interest. The driving force behind animal protection is our empathy with animals which triggers feelings of compassion. Empathy with animals most likely is a psychological side-effect of adaptive empathy among humans, and its expression is largely determined by the degree of similarity between animals and us in morphology and behaviour. As a result, compassion with animals is vulnerable to anthropocentric bias, prejudice, and deception, and animal protection based on compassion is likely to be unfair towards animals. Moreover, from an ethological perspective, protecting animals in their own interest represents true altruism which places considerable ethical demand on us. However, there may be hidden selfish intentions that question the altruistic nature of animal protection, while at the same time facilitating its implementation. For example, animal protection could help to avoid unpleasant feelings induced by witnessing cruel actions towards animals. Alternatively, exhibiting a caring personality towards animals could represent human social behaviour that pays off indirectly through building up a caring reputation. It is, therefore, important to distinguish between our intention to protect animals (which may be partly selfish) and true animal protection that needs to be justified biologically by values that apply to the animals. Based on the sentientist nature of animal welfare legislation, the greatest challenges to applied ethologists, and important ones as testified by this special issue, are (i) to determine sentience in animals and (ii) to establish valid and reliable measures of affective states such as suffering and well-being. However, there are promising measures of animal welfare beyond measures of affective states. In particular, biologically meaningful measures of ‘integrity of form and function’ may provide powerful indicators of animal welfare. The integrity concept originates in biocentric ethics and goes beyond sentientism, as it can also be applied to non-sentient animals and even plants. However, when applied to (potentially) sentient animals, it appears to be consistent with our common sense notion of animal welfare which also respects the animals’ ‘nature’ or ‘telos’. Moreover, the integrity concept would relieve scientists from solving the ‘hard problem’ of animal consciousness first, or from establishing valid measures of demand or aversion that are notoriously difficult to establish. In particular, measures of behavioural integrity could offer an opportunity for applied ethology to strengthen its impact on ethical and legal decision-taking, thereby advancing animal welfare without compromising scientific credibility.

Wkład Hansa Jonasa w filozofię odpowiedzialności

Article presents the concept of responsibility in Hans Jonas’s philosophy. Biocentric character of his ethics gives it new outlook to the phenomenon of responsibility. It seems that mankind cannot anymore afford ignoring environmental problems. And Jonas’s imperative of responsibility is the answer to the ecological crisis. It is based on Kant’s imperative, but new imperative goes beyond anthropocentric ethics to biocentric ethics. It aimed at preserving all forms of life, life in its rich diversity. Its basic motivation is fear of progressing destruction of nature, this fear, when dosed properly by politicians, leads to undertaking actions aiming at preserving nature from man’s activity. It seems that taking responsibility for nature may be way to preserve it.

The application of environmental ethics in biological conservation: a case study from the southernmost tip of the Americas

Biological conservation is not only about facts and technical measures concerning ecology, rather it must also consider values. This pertains to both the balancing of various human interests and also to the ethical evaluation of human actions towards nature. Here we discuss how environmental ethics can be incorporated into conservation decisions, and what implications the inclusion of ethical valuation has for the practice of conservation biology. While this is done mostly on a rather abstract level, we illustrate this here by applying ethical theory to a case study: the options for management of the introduced North American beaver (Castor canadensis) in the very south of Chile (Navarino Island). The beaver is an exotic species to the area and has substantially altered the ecological systems of the region. We discuss different options for dealing with the beaver (eradicate, control, tolerate, promote) from the viewpoint of anthropocentric environmental ethics and biocentric ethics. The results of our analysis demonstrate the value of ethical discussions in clarifying and underpinning arguments for and against specific actions. At the same time, they also show that ethical arguments do not decrease the need for sound scientific data but, on the contrary, may even increase this demand. We also highlight that the conclusions regarding adequate actions to be taken vary depending on the specific ethical theory embraced.