Biotemplating Approach Research Articles

Bio-templating approach and DFT study of ZrMo@KIT-6 catalyst for the conversion of deep fried oil into sustainable biodiesel production

In this study, highly porous ZrMo@KIT-6 heterogeneous catalyst was developed using Aloevera gel along with Pluronic as a mixed template. The catalytic activity was executed in biodiesel production from low valued deep fried oil to develop a sustainable energy approach. The physiochemical properties of the developed catalyst were assessed in depth using different analytical techniques including, TGA, XRD, BET, TPD-NH3, FESEM- EDX and XRD analyses. It was noted that the catalyst synthesized with Aloevera gel and Pluronic mixed template possessed improved texture, morphological properties and evenly distributed active centers with total acidity of 0.95 mmol/g and surface area of 741.46 m2/g. These experimental results were further endorsed by DFT analysis. Moreover, the designed catalystexhibited paramounted catalytic efficacy in transesterification reaction of deep fried oil into biodiesel, providing a phenomenal 97.7 % biodiesel yield under optimal reaction conditions. Apart from this, the designed catalyst sustained catalytic activity up to five times with biodiesel yield 87 %. Thus, the designed catalyst presents a novel fuel strategy which will bring both financial and environmental sustainability in the future.

Metallization of Targeted Protein Assemblies in Cell-Derived Extracellular Matrix by Antibody-Guided Biotemplating.

Biological systems are composed of hierarchical structures made of a large number of proteins. These structures are highly sophisticated and challenging to replicate using artificial synthesis methods. To exploit these structures in materials science, biotemplating is used to achieve biocomposites that accurately mimic biological structures and impart functionality of inorganic materials, including electrical conductivity. However, the biological scaffolds used in previous studies are limited to stereotypical and simple morphologies with little synthetic diversity because of a lack of control over their morphologies. This study proposes that the specific protein assemblies within the cell-derived extracellular matrix (ECM), whose morphological features are widely tailorable, can be employed as versatile biotemplates. In a typical procedure, a fibrillar assembly of fibronectin-a constituent protein of the ECM-is metalized through an antibody-guided biotemplating approach. Specifically, the antibody-bearing nanogold is attached to the fibronectin through antibody-antigen interactions, and then metals are grown on the nanogold acting as a seed. The biomimetic structure can be adapted for hydrogen production and sensing after improving its electrical conductivity through thermal sintering or additional metal growth. This study demonstrates that cell-derived ECM can be an attractive option for addressing the diversity limitation of a conventional biotemplate.

Investigating the size-dependent structural, optical, dielectric, and photocatalytic properties of benign-synthesized ZnO nanoparticles

Zinc oxide (ZnO) plays a vital role in numerous technological facets of semiconductors. Due to its captivating characteristics, it has garnered considerable interest in a diverse array of applications. In this study, the egg albumen-facilitated bio-template approach was utilized to fabricate ZnO nanoparticles, aiming to investigate the impact of varying albumen concentration ratios on the crystal structure, dimensions, and shape of the resulting ZnO nanoparticles. This approach provides more precise customization of the dimensions and configuration of the nanocrystals and is compatible with most documented physical techniques. Exploring the morphological impacts of unadulterated or altered zinc oxide nanocrystals on photocatalytic performance is crucial for maximizing solar energy absorption and utilization. However, this aspect has yet to receive much attention in previous studies. The photocatalytic rate was discovered to be independent of the ZnO particle size, but the geometry factor is of paramount significance. ZnO with a nanopencil shape exhibited a minimum of 1.81 times higher efficiency than spherical particles. Furthermore, the dielectric characteristics of ZnO nanoparticles (NPs) were investigated across a frequency range of 75 kHz to 7 MHz, considering the dependence on particle size. As the dimensions of the ZnO NPs diminish, there is a gradual rise in the dielectric permittivity, increasing from 20 to 82 with the escalation in frequency. In the context of ZnO nanoparticles (NPs), the Maxwell- Wagner polarization model can elucidate the phenomenon of robust interfacial polarization, particularly as the ZnO size diminishes. As the frequency increases, the AC conductivity exhibits a gradual augmentation. Likewise, in relation to the dielectric constant and losses, the electrical conductivity characteristics of all ZnO NPs samples exhibit a reliance on the size of the crystals, where a reduction in crystal size corresponds to a decrease in electrical conductivity. The utilization of eco-friendly nanomaterials is anticipated to pave the way for novel possibilities in their exceptional electronic applications as storage materials.

Multiscale Functional Metal Architectures by Antibody‐Guided Metallization of Specific Protein Assemblies in Ex Vivo Multicellular Organisms

Biological systems consist of hierarchical protein structures, each of which has unique 3Dgeometries optimized for specific functions. In the past decades, the growth of inorganic materials on specific proteins has attracted considerable attention. However, the use of specific proteins as templates has only been demonstrated in relatively simple organisms, such as viruses, limiting the range of structures that can be used as scaffolds. This study proposes a method for synthesizing metallic structures that resemble the 3D assemblies of specific proteins in mammalian cells and animal tissues. Using 1.4 nm nanogold-conjugated antibodies, specific proteins within cells and ex vivo tissues are labeled, and then the nanogold acts as nucleation sites for growth of metal particles. As proof of concept, various metal particles are grown using microtubules in cells as templates. The metal-containing cells are applied as catalysts and show catalytic stability in liquid-phase reactions due to the rigid support provided by the microtubules. Finally, this method is used to produce metal structures that replicate the specific protein assemblies of neurons in the mouse brain or the extracellular matrices in the mouse kidney and heart. This new biotemplating approach can facilitate the conversion of specific protein structures into metallic forms in ex vivo multicellular organisms.

A novel NiO/ZnO biomorphic nanotubes synthesized using human hair template with an enhanced gas sensing for n-butanol

Novel human hair template templated layered ZnO gas-sensing nanotube materials (CT NiO/ZnO) were synthesised by using a simple and low-cost biotemplate approach. X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscope (SEM), transmission electron microscope (TEM), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), energy dispersive X-ray Detector（EDS）and Brunauer Emmett Teller (BET) were carried out to characterize the structure and morphology of the materials. The final CT NiO/ZnO composites materials were composed of hexagonal wurtzite ZnO and cubic NiO and exhibited hollow tubular structure. The p-n heterojunctions of the composites formed in the interface of NiO and ZnO. The results of gas sensitivity test indicated that CT NiO/ZnO had the great gas sensitivity (Rair/Rgas=68.82) and selectivity (5–10 times greater response than the other vapors) at 240 °C to n-butanol on a gas sensing platform. The enhancement of CT NiO/ZnO’s gas sensing properties were attributed to high concentration of oxygen vacancies and the formation of p-n heterojunctions after the introduce of NiO.

Green and sustainable preparation of flower-like ZnO nanostructures via soft bio-template approach for the enhancement of biomedical applications

Investigation on the biomedical applications of flower-like Zinc Oxide (ZnO) nanostructures (NSs) synthesized by using aqueous extract of Oryza punctata (red rice) is reported for the first time. For the sustainable preparation of ZnO NSs, the precursors zinc nitrate and the rice extract act as the bio-template material. The optical energy bandgap value for the ZnO NSs was found to be 3.29 eV. The flower-like morphology of the ZnO NSs was confirmed by field emission scanning electron microscopy analysis. The ZnO NSs showed the potential cytotoxicity activity against MCF-7 cell line and antibacterial properties. Significant antioxidant activity was studied by the bio-prepared ZnO NSs against scavenging of DPPH (di(phenyl)-(2,4,6-trinitrophenyl) iminoazanium) free radicals. The flower-like ZnO NSs showed a significant anti-arthritic activity with a maximum inhibition of protein denaturation (78.94 ± 1.62%) and membrane protective activity (81.12 ± 1.25%) at a dose of 0.5 mg/mL concentration.

Biotemplated g-C3N4/Au Periodic Hierarchical Structures for the Enhancement of Photocatalytic CO2 Reduction with Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance.

Graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4) is a promising photocatalyst for CO2 reduction to alleviate the greenhouse effect. However, the low light absorption, small specific surface area, and rapid charge recombination limit the photocatalytic efficiency of g-C3N4. Herein, we demonstrate a bioinspired nanoarchitecturing strategy to significantly improve the light harvesting and charge separation of the g-C3N4/Au composite, as proven by the remarkable photocatalytic CO2 reduction. Specifically, a biotemplating approach is employed to transfer the sophisticated hierarchical structures and the related light-harvesting functionality of Troides helena butterfly wings to the g-C3N4/Au composite. The resulting g-C3N4/Au composite shows high photocatalytic efficiency under UV-visible excitation with triethanolamine as the sacrificial agent. The yields of CO and CH4 are 331.57 and 39.71 μmol/g/h, respectively, which are ∼36 times and ∼88 times that of pure g-C3N4 under the same conditions. Detailed experiments and the finite-difference time-domain method suggest that the superb photocatalytic activity should be ascribed to the unique periodic hierarchical structure which assists the light absorption and the localized surface plasmon resonance for promoted charge separation in addition to the more effective CO2 diffusion and larger specific surface area. Our work provides a new path for the design and optimization of photocatalysts based on biological structures that are usually unattainable artificially.

Co‐doping of P(V) and Ti(III) in leaf‐architectured TiO2 for enhanced visible light harvesting and solar photocatalysis

AbstractExtending the absorption spectrum of TiO2 to include more visible light is of great importance to boost the photocatalytic efficiency for hydrogen generation and environmental pollution removal. Chemical doping and microstructure optimization are both effective. However, integrating them into one system at a low cost is a big challenge. Herein, we reported that phosphorus(V) and Titanium(III) were codoped into leaf‐architectured TiO2 via a facile sol‐gel biotemplating approach, which leads to significantly enhanced visible light harvesting and solar photocatalysis. P(V) doping at a moderate level (1.76 atm%) stabilized Ti(III) to achieve heavy self‐doping (Ti(III):Ti(IV) = 1:44) and concurrent oxygen vacancies of high concentration. The bandgap was narrowed to be only 1.9~2.3 eV. The synergistic co‐doping, coupling with the leaf‐architecture, allows efficient light absorption of less than 539~653 nm, as well as improved charge separation/transfer. The solar photocatalytic degradation rate is 2.6 times higher than that for a commercial TiO2 of P25 towards crystal violet. This work would push forward leaf‐architectured TiO2 toward practical application in photocatalysis, given the abundance, low cost, and renewability of green leaves. The codoping strategy combining sol‐gel and biotemplating approaches is potential for the synthesis of photo‐response materials or systems beyond photocatalysis.

Au nanoparticle-grafted hierarchical pillars array replicated from diatom as reliable SERS substrates

Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) is to date a popular detection technology in chemistry, materials science, and medical research with growth potential to provide powerful sensing capabilities. However, there are still great challenges to design and fabricate reliable SERS substrate featuring good reproducibility and high sensitivity. Herein, we demonstrated a bio-templating approach to fabricate SERS substrate, using nanoimprint technique for replicating delicate hierarchical patterns of diatom frustules onto PDMS film, followed by sputtering Au nanoparticles. The minimum diameter and height of the nano-pillars on the substrate were ~ 40 nm and ~ 25 nm, respectively, which were identified with the dimensions of the nanopores on diatom frustules. The diameter and gap of the deposited Au nanoparticles could be changed by varying sputtering duration. The as-fabricated SERS substrate showed a high detection sensitivity (enhancement factor ~ 2.24 × 107) with good Raman signal reproducibility for the probe molecule Rhodamine 6G (relative standard deviation of the intensity at 612 cm−1 < 20%). More importantly, the limit of concentration (LOC) of the probe molecule reached as low as 10−11 M. For extending the SERS substrate fabricated in this research to the potential applications including food safety, the SERS performance of Carbendazim was conducted and the LOC reached 10−7 M.

Revealing the role of kapok fibre as bio-template for In-situ construction of C-doped g-C3N4@C, N co-doped TiO2 core-shell heterojunction photocatalyst and its photocatalytic hydrogen production performance

For the first time, C-doped g-C3N4@C, N co-doped TiO2 core-shell heterojunction photocatalyst was successfully prepared by an in-situ one-pot hydrothermal bio-template approach, assisted by calcination treatment at 500 °C. Kapok fibre was used as a bio-templates and in-situ C doping in g-C3N4 and TiO2 during the formation of core-shell heterojunction photocatalyst. Moreover, the used of urea as g-C3N4-precursor also contribute to band-gap narrowing by an in-situ carbon and nitrogen doping in TiO2. Various characterisation techniques were employed to understand the effect TiO2 precursor concentration on the evolution of core-shell nanostructure heterojunction photocatalyst that can affect and boost the catalytic activity. The detailed understanding of the concurrent growth of C-doped g-C3N4 (CCN) and C, N co-doped TiO2 mechanism, as well as the formation of core-shell nanostructures heterojunction formation, are also proposed in this study. Our finding indicated that the bio-template core-shell nanostructure heterojunction photocatalysts showed a dramatic increase in photoinduced electron-hole separation efficiency as demonstrated by the photoelectrochemical and photoluminescence analyses. The enhancement in photogenerated charge carrier separation and narrower band gap resulted in superior photocatalytic activities with the highest rate of hydrogen production was recorded by CCN/T-1.5 sample (625.5 μmol h−1 g−1) in methanol aqueous solution. The well-developed interconnected heterojunction formation with appropriate CCN and TiO2 contents in core-shell nanoarchitectures system is a prime factor for the future design of a highly efficient visible-light-driven photocatalyst.

Photocatalytic reduction of CO2 to hydrocarbons using bio-templated porous TiO2 architectures under UV and visible light

Artificial TiO2 leaves with the morphology replicating that of Camellia tree leaves were synthesized through a multi-step bio-templating approach. Scanning and transmission electron microscopy images of the final products indicated that proposed method successfully replicates the highly porous structure of the leaf photosystem, down to the thylakoids. The hierarchical pore network and morphology of the bio-templated TiO2 catalyst were demonstrated to be critical factors in successful photocatalytic reduction of CO2 under UV (370 nm) and visible (515 nm) light. The artificial TiO2 leaves increased the selectivity towards methane in CO2 photoreduction compared with benchmark commercial catalyst under UV light. The new TiO2 structures also outperformed the P25 titania by more than 1.35 times in terms of total product yield (CO + CH4) of under visible light. We hypothesized that modifying the morphology of the catalyst can alter the pathway and efficiency of photocatalytic reactions. Deposition of ruthenium dioxide on the surface of the new TiO2 architecture showed further improvement in photocatalytic activity under both UV and visible light. The photocatalytic reduction of CO2 coupled with the oxidative water splitting was also validated by kinetic modelling. The experimental data exhibited a very good fit to the pseudo first order kinetics. The understanding of the morphological contribution of the photocatalyst revealed in this study can help to augment the efficiency and selectivity of CO2 photoreduction.

Biotemplated Morpho Butterfly Wings for Tunable Structurally Colored Photocatalysts

Morpho sulkowskyi butterfly wings contain naturally occurring hierarchical nanostructures that produce structural coloration. The high aspect ratio and surface area of these wings make them attractive nanostructured templates for applications in solar energy and photocatalysis. However, biomimetic approaches to replicate their complex structural features and integrate functional materials into their three-dimensional framework are highly limited in precision and scalability. Herein, a biotemplating approach is presented that precisely replicates Morpho nanostructures by depositing nanocrystalline ZnO coatings onto wings via low-temperature atomic layer deposition (ALD). This study demonstrates the ability to precisely tune the natural structural coloration while also integrating multifunctionality by imparting photocatalytic activity onto fully intact Morpho wings. Optical spectroscopy and finite-difference time-domain numerical modeling demonstrate that ALD ZnO coatings can rationally tune the structural coloration across the visible spectrum. These structurally colored photocatalysts exhibit an optimal coating thickness to maximize photocatalytic activity, which is attributed to trade-offs between light absorption and catalytic quantum yield with increasing coating thickness. These multifunctional photocatalysts present a new approach to integrating solar energy harvesting into visually attractive surfaces that can be integrated into building facades or other macroscopic structures to impart aesthetic appeal.

Biomimicking synthesis of photoluminescent molecular lantern catalyzed by in-situ formation of nanogold catalysts

Bioluminescence has been widely recognized as a powerful imaging tool for biological investigations. Synthesis of molecular lanterns that mimic bioluminescence in nature is of great interest. Herein we report a synthesis of molecular lantern by utilizing the catalytic properties of ultrasmall (<2nm) gold nanoclusters (AuNC), which is inspired by the enzymatic light-up of luciferin in the biological system. Small molecules such as hydroquinone and Cys-Gly peptides are used to direct the synthesis of AuNC via a biotemplating approach, while the in-situ formation of AuNC simultaneously catalyze the formation of luciferin-like, brightly fluorescent dye (λem=520nm, QY=0.20). The as-formed dye species deposits on the surface of AuNC and prevents its agglomeration, thus forming a dye-decorated AuNC core-shell structure (AuNC@dye). The formation mechanism of the AuNC@dye composite material has been systematically studied using different characterization techniques including TEM, ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy, and photoluminescence measurements. The biocompatibility of as-formed AuNC@dye is verified by cellular uptake experiments, and it has been demonstrated as a good imaging probe by using Hela cells as a model.

Facile synthesis of bacitracin-templated palladium nanoparticles with superior electrocatalytic activity

Abstract Palladium nanomaterials have attracted great attention on the development of electrocatalysts for fuel cells. Herein, we depicted a novel strategy in the synthesis of palladium nanoparticles with superior electrocatalytic activity. The new approach, based on the self-assembly of bacitracin biotemplate and palladium salt for the preparation of bacitracin-palladium nanoparticles (Bac-PdNPs), was simple, low-cost, and green. The complex, composed by a series of spherical Bac-PdNPs with a diameter of 70 nm, exhibited a chain-liked morphology in TEM and a face-centered cubic crystal structure in X-Ray diffraction and selected area electron diffraction. The palladium nanoparticles were mono-dispersed and stable in aqueous solution as shown in TEM and zeta potential. Most importantly, compared to the commercial palladium on carbon (Pd/C) catalyst (8.02 m 2 g −1 ), the Bac-PdNPs showed a larger electrochemically active surface area (47.57 m 2 g −1 ), which endowed the products an excellent electrocatalytic activity for ethanol oxidation in alkaline medium. The strategy in synthesis of Bac-PdNPs via biotemplate approach might light up new ideas in anode catalysts for direct ethanol fuel cells.

Biomineralization: Nanocrystals by design.

Nanocrystals with precisely defined structures offer promise as components of advanced materials yet they are challenging to create. Now, a nanocrystal made up of seven cadmium and twelve chloride ions has been synthesized via a biotemplating approach that uses a de novo designed protein.

Constructing inverse V-type TiO2-based photocatalyst via bio-template approach to enhance the photosynthetic water oxidation

Bio-template approach was employed to construct inverse V-type TiO2-based photocatalyst with well distributed AgBr in TiO2 matrix by making dead Troides Helena wings with inverse V-type scales as the template. A cross-linked titanium precursor with homogenous hydrolytic rate, good liquidity, and low viscosity was employed to facilitate a perfect duplication of the template and the dispersion of AgBr based on appropriate pretreatment of the template by alkali and acid. The as-synthesized inverse V-type TiO2/AgBr can be turned into inverse V-type TiO2/Ag0 from AgBr photolysis during photocatalysis to achieve in situ deposition of Ag0 in TiO2 matrix, by this approach, to avoid the deformation of surface microstructure inherited from the template. The result showed that the cooperation of perfect inverse V-type structure and the well distributed TiO2/Ag0 microstructures can efficiently boost the photosynthetic water oxidation compared to non-inverse V-type TiO2/Ag0 and TiO2/Ag0 without using template. The anti-reflection function of inverse V-type structure and the plasmatic effect of Ag0 might be able to account for the enhanced photon capture and efficient photoelectric conversion.

The Impact of Aspect Ratio on the Biodistribution and Tumor Homing of Rigid Soft-Matter Nanorods.

The size and shape of nanocarriers can affect their fate in vivo, but little is known about the effect of nanocarrier aspect ratio on biodistribution in the setting of cancer imaging and drug delivery. The production of nanoscale anisotropic materials is a technical challenge. A unique biotemplating approach based on of rod-shaped nucleoprotein nanoparticles with predetermined aspect ratios (AR 3.5, 7, and 16.5) is used. These rigid, soft-matter nanoassemblies are derived from tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) components. The role of nanoparticle aspect ratio is investigated, while keeping the surface chemistries constant, using either PEGylated stealth nanoparticles or receptor-targeted RGD-displaying formulations. Aspect ratio has a profound impact on the behavior of the nanoparticles in vivo and in vitro. PEGylated nanorods with the lowest aspect ratio (AR 3.5) achieve the most efficient passive tumor-homing behavior because they can diffuse most easily, whereas RGD-labeled particles with a medium aspect ratio (AR 7) are more efficient at tumor targeting because this requires a balance between infusibility and ligand-receptor interactions. The in vivo behavior of nanoparticles can therefore be tailored to control biodistribution, longevity, and tumor penetration by modulating a single parameter: the aspect ratio of the nanocarrier.

Solid-Binding Peptides as a Biotemplate for Li-Ion Battery Electrodes

Li-ion battery electrodes composed of electroactive materials at the nanoscale level show higher capacity and energy density over macroscale structures. However, nanoscale battery materials are prone to aggregation upon cell cycling, which reduces the specific capacity and coulombic efficiency, thus, leading to poor cycling stability. Using a biotemplating approach for electrode fabrication presents opportunities that may overcome aggregation and improve conductivity through introduction of biological nanoscale templates that would precisely control the position of electroactive nanoparticles in intimate proximity with conductive material and provide structural support upon cycling. Engineering of nanoscale bridges between electroactive and conductive material is done using solid-binding peptides (SBP) that have specific binding affinity for the materials of interest. In our study, SBP for cathode material Li2Mn3NiO8 (LMNO) was isolated using M13 bacteriophage through Phage Display procedure (New England Biolabs®). The nature of binding affinity between the peptide and the active material was determined through site-directed mutagenesis of specific amino acids in the peptide sequence. Binding peptides for LMNO and multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) are combined to form bifunctional peptide that serve as a nanobridge to connect two materials with synergistic properties. In this presentation I will discuss research on determining how SBPs bind to electroactive materials, and I will also show the impact that multifunctional SBPs have on improving battery electrode performance.

Biotemplating plasmonic nanoparticles using intact microfluidic vasculature of leaves.

Leaves are an abundant natural resource, and consist of a sophisticated microfluidic network of veins that transport nutrients and water, thereby enabling photosynthesis. Here, we simultaneously exploit the microfluidics as well as chemistry of processed leaf vasculature (venation) in order to template the in situ generation of plasmonic metal (gold and silver) nanoparticles under ambient conditions. This biotemplating approach involves capillary flow of metal salts through skeleton leaf vasculature, and does not require additional reducing agents for plasmonic nanoparticle formation. Gold nanoparticles, 30-40 nm in diameter, and silver nanoparticles, approximately 9 nm in diameter, were formed within the intact leaf vasculature using this method. Absorption spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and electron diffraction analyses were employed to ascertain the formation of nanoparticles in the leaf veins. Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy was employed in order to obtain insights into functional groups responsible for formation of the plasmonic nanoparticles within the leaves. Gold nanoparticles, templated within leaves, demonstrated excellent catalytic properties, thereby imparting catalytic and plasmonic properties to the leaf itself. Furthermore, nanoparticles can be recovered from the leaves as soluble dispersions by simply combusting the organic leaf matter. Taken together, this is a simple yet powerful biotemplating approach for the generation of plasmonic nanoparticles and formation of biotic-abiotic structures for diverse, low-cost applications in sensing, catalysis, and medicine.

Pore characteristics and mechanical properties of silica templated by wood

The pore characteristics and the mechanical properties of silica samples templated by wood were investigated. The wood samples had been either solely extracted with solvent, delignified or delignified and functionalized with maleic acid anhydride prior to infiltration with tetraethyl orthosilicate and subsequent calcination. All three samples show similar mesopore characteristics, while the one based on maleic acid anhydride functionalized wood exhibited also a large volume of micropores. These micropores are only partly accessible as shown by a combination of in situ small angle x-ray scattering and sorption experiments with n-pentane. Nanoindentation experiments reveal that the presence of the micropores decreases the indentation hardness of the material, while the reduced elastic modulus is similar for all three samples when taking mesoporosity properly into account. In addition, the micropores enhance the ductility index of the material. The microporosity introduced by this biotemplating approach proves to be advantageous for increasing the toughness of silica, as the material can dissipate more energy by irreversible collapse of the pores.