Bio Filler Research Articles

Investigation of Snake Grass/Casuarina/Cork Filler Reinforced Bio Polymer Hybrid Composite

The environment is continuously affected for various reasons, prompting researchers to seek solutions from different angles. This study explores the potential of mixing polymers with and without agricultural/bio fillers such as Snake Grass / Casuarina / Cork in various volume proportions, analyzing their mechanical properties. The hybrid materials are made with the polymers and bio fillers without any change in the quality of existing polymer products, the quality of hybrid materials is assured by the results of impact, flexural, and tensile tests. Finally, the biodegradability tests revealed weight loss in a soil burial test when bio-filler was added to the polymer composite.

Novel nano composites from Citrus limon and Citrullus colocynthis agricultural wastes for biomedical applications

In recent years, academic and industrial research has focused on using agro-waste for energy and new material production to promote sustainable development and lessen environmental issues. In this study, new nanocomposites based on polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)-Starch using two affordable agricultural wastes, Citrus limon peels (LP) and Citrullus colocynthis (Cc) shells and seeds powders with different concentrations (2, 5, 10, and 15 wt%) as bio-fillers were prepared. The nanocomposites were characterized by Dielectric Spectroscopy, Fourier-Transform Infrared (FTIR), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM), and water swelling ratio. The antimicrobial properties of the nanocomposites against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Candida albicans were examined to investigate the possibility of using such composites in biomedical applications. Additionally, the biocompatibility of the composites on human normal fibroblast cell lines (HSF) was tested using MTT (3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5 diphenyl tetrazolium bromide) assay. The results demonstrate that the filler type and concentration strongly affect the film's properties. The permittivity ε′, dielectric loss ε″ and conductivity σdc increased by increasing filler content but still in the insulators range that recommend such composites to be used in the insulation purposes. Both bio fillers control the water uptake, and the samples filled with LP were more water resistant. The polyvinyl alcohol/starch incorporated with 5 wt% LP and Cc have antimicrobial effects against all the tested microorganisms. Increasing the filler content has a negative impact on cell viability.

Isolation and characterization of banyan tree root filler for polymer composites in light-weight applications

The applicability of bio fillers as reinforcement with polymers is promoted by economic and ecological concerns. Nowadays, a large range of reinforcements are employed for this purpose, including cellulosic fillers and natural fibres owing to the favorable mechanical behavior, cheap price, negligible tool wear, low density, and eco-friendliness etc. The motive of this investigation is to explore the possibilities of utilizing plant sources as reinforcing filler in polymeric matrices. In this study particulate fillers were obtained from banyan tree’s aerial roots and were subjected to various characterization such as physiochemical evaluation, Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), x-ray diffraction (XRD), thermal analysis (TGA), and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). From the physiochemical analysis it was found that the banyan tree aerial root filler (BTAR) contained 40.13% of Cellulose, 15.22% of Hemicellulose, 15.31% of Lignin and 6.86% of Pectin. The density of the BTAR filler was found to be 0.27 gm cc−1 whereas the average particle size was 136.3 μm. The maximum inflection temperature referred to the maximum degradation of the BTAR filler was 295.7 °C. The SEM analysis exposed the rough surface of filler, with micro-structured strands and pores. The rough surface and the pores could help in better bond ability of the matrix and reinforcement when combined. Given the features of the examined BTAR filler, it is suggested as potential reinforcing filler for polymer composites to strengthen material properties for different light weight applications.

Potential of mango shell powder as a bio filler in flax-jute hybrid epoxy composites: mechanical and wear characterization

Abstract The exploration of natural fillers has garnered considerable attention in response to persistent concerns about material pollution and diminishing resources. In the context of this study, one such natural filler under scrutiny is mango shell powder (MSP), a byproduct derived from mango processing. The central objective of this investigation is to assess the potential of MSP as a filler in flax-jute hybrid epoxy composites, with a keen focus on enhancing their properties. Specifically, the study aims to elucidate the impact of incorporating MSP filler on the mechanical and wear characteristics of these composites. The experimental approach involved the preparation of composite samples with varying weight percentages of MSP filler, ranging from 1 % to 9 % (1 %, 3 %, 5 %, 7 %, and 9 %), while maintaining a constant fiber and matrix weight ratio. The results obtained from the experiments revealed that composite samples containing a 7 % filler exhibited superior mechanical properties, while wear resistance demonstrated a noticeable decrease with the progressive increase in filler content. These findings suggest the potential efficacy of MSP as a filler in enhancing both the mechanical and wear characteristics of flax-jute hybrid epoxy composites, providing valuable insights for further applications in sustainable composite materials.

Mechanical Properties, DMA and Structural Analysis of Cassia Auriculata/PLA Blended Hybrid bio Matrix Composite

In this study, hybrid composite material composed of Poly Lactic Acid (PLA) and Cassia Auriculata (CA) were fabricated and the mechanical properties were evaluated to assess the impact of bio filler loading in the bio polymer (PLA) matrix. In order to fabricate the composite specimens, the CA bio filler was added to the PLA matrix in proportions of 10%, 20%, 30%, 40% and 50% by volume. In line with ASTM specifications, experiments were conducted to establish how the hybrid bio matrix, which was composed of both PLA and CA influenced the composite s mechanical characteristics. The test results indicated that adding 30 percent CA to PLA enhanced the material s mechanical, dynamic mechanical analysis, thermogravimetric properties. The composite composition with better properties was considered for further fabrication of a colposcopy fixture, the component was fabricated using additive manufacturing methodology.

Investigations on melt flow index of nano bio fillers reinforced thermoplastic composites for fDM filament fabrication

Three-Dimensional (3D) printing, is a creative manufacturing technique. Well-known additive manufacturing technique Fused deposition modelling (FDM), has seen an increase in ppopularity over the recent years due to its capability to make complex geometries that conventional production ways are unable to. Typically used materials in the fused deposition modelling are polymer based, however they do not have certain attributes that would allow them for usage in more extensive applications. Nano materials are used in 3d printing to improve novel functionalities. In the current research, we investigated the melt flow characteristics of a novel material to produce filament wire for uutilization in 3d printing mainly FDM applications. Different weight percentages of orange peel powder (0%, 2%, 4%, 6%, 8%, 10%) were reinforced with PLA pellets to produce a composite, study the composite’s melt flow properties. Out of all weight percentages 2% shows the best result than the neat PLA. The MFI’s test result clearly indicates that the value of MFI of PLA varied significantly based on the weight percentages of filler used as reinforcement.

Effects of pyrolyzed Buxus sempervirens ingredient as micro and bio fillers on polystyrene: Spectroscopic characteristics

In this study, Buxus sempervirens leaf ingredient (LP) and the carbon (LC) and the ash (LA) were obtained, which are the bio-originated materials. Carbon and ash obtained from this natural plant were prepared by heating and pyrolysis for 2 h at 250 ℃ and 700 ℃, respectively. Then, the solution casting method was used to prepare the composites of these bio-additives with polystyrene. Next, the effects of the additives on diffuse reflectance spectroscopy (DRS) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) spectra of polystyrene were investigated. In addition, the additives led to noticeable changes in X-ray diffraction results, implying a change in the morphology of the polymer. All of these observations imply the uniform formation of the polystyrene (PS) composites with the micro and bio-fillers.

Lignocellulose based biofiller reinforced biopolymer composites from fruit peel wastes as natural pigment

In this study, the utilization of mangosteen and durian peel wastes as bio-filler and natural pigment in biopolymer of polybutyrate adipate terephthalate (PBAT) were examined. The related research work of hybridization of both mangosteen and durian peels reinforced in biopolymer as cellulose-based bio fillers and natural pigment is rarely studied. The content variation of mangosteen powder and durian powder ranged from 0 to 30 wt% with an increment of 10. The influence of mangosteen and durian powders reinforced in PBAT on color change, morphological, chemical composition, mechanical, thermal, and rheological properties were determined. Mangosteen peel and durian peel provided dark appearance for the green composites without pre-burn of these fruit peels. It can be concluded that mangosteen peel and durian peel can be used as bio pigment and natural reinforcement material in biopolymer matrix which can reduce massive waste of mangosteen and durian peel and add value to these wastes. These black biopolymer composites can be used in applications of eco-friendly food packaging and medicine zipper packaging. The overall mechanical properties, thermal stability, and dark color of mangosteen/PBAT composites were greater than those of durian/PBAT composites. However, durian/PBAT composites presented greater thermal and rheological properties than mangosteen/PBAT composites.

Tribological and mechanical properties investigations on polymer based composites reinforced with bio fillers

Bio-composites are currently considered a viable alternative to conventional, nonbiodegradable polymers. Further increasing, the use of natural fillers helps keep the price of bio-composites down. Polylactic acid (PLA) served as the matrix in this study, and Rice Husk Fibre (RH) and Walnut Shell Fibre (WS) were used as filler materials. Rice Husk Ash (RHA) at 0%, 2%, 4%, 8%, and 10% and Walnut Ash (WNA) at 2% are combined in the PLA matrix. The aim of this analysis was to investigate the impact of varying quantities of a silane-alkali processed rice husk fibre and walnut shell fibre (hybrid fibre) in a PLA-based composite with respect to mechanical, thermal, and tribological properties. Tensile, flexural, impact toughness then Shore D Hardness of approximately 192 MPa, 224 MPa, 6.91 J and 96 were achieved in composites containing alkali-silane-treated rice husk fibre at 10 wt% and walnut shell fibre at 2 wt%, correspondingly. The addition of 2 wt% WS fibre particle reduces the bio-specific composite's specific wear rate (SWR) to around 0.009 mm3/Nm and its coefficient of friction (COF) to about 0.42, respectively. In addition, by including particles made from 6 wt% Rice husk fibre and 2 wt% walnut shell fibre, the composites show promising thermal capabilities, with a Tg of 103◦C. These PLA bio-composites prove the use in aerospace, defence, sports, domestic infrastructure, automobiles, and industrial applications due to their improved mechanical, thermal, and wear characteristics.

Critical review on biopolymer composites used in concrete

Over the past few decades, the development of green, high-performing, and environmentally friendly materials like Biopolymers are a new trend in sustainable building. Natural monomers from plants or other organisms are used to create biopolymers. These biopolymers are used to enhance concrete's mechanical, physical, and durability properties. This study focuses on a critical analysis of previously published experimental studies on numerous types of biopolymer composites in concrete and mortar, and its impact on the fresh and hardened properties of biopolymer concrete and mortar. In this study, the physical and mechanical characteristics of the biopolymer concrete/mortar are examined, along with their fresh performance. This paper examines a research project that was started to enhance the fundamental comprehension of this material and to supply the information necessary for its widespread application. Consequently, a comparison of traditional concrete, polymer concrete, and biopolymer concrete along with resins and fibres in various quantities has been made. The mechanical characteristics, benefits, and applications of resin-based biopolymer concrete are discussed in this review paper. This paper discusses the use of different bio resins and bio fillers in concrete and mortar, which will be helpful for future research on the topic of biopolymer concrete.

Development of hybrid composite with natural fillers for mechanical property and machinability study

The urge to build a more environmentally friendly future has motivated researchers to examine composites outside of synthetic fiber and continue to consider natural fibre polymer composite. This present research, the hybrid bio composite was developed by bio fillers and natural fibres. The preliminary investigation was done to examine the possibility of using natural fillers (palm and coconut shell) in natural fibre (hemp and basalt) reinforced polymer (NFRP) composite for manufacturing application. In that way initially mechanical (tensile and flexural) properties testing were done on four different combinations of NFRP by using palm and coconut shell particles, to their influence on mechanical properties (tensile stress 278 MPa and flexural stress 330 MPa). It was found that 5% wt. palm + coco shell fillers combination hybrid composite presented good results in mechanical properties. Then 5% wt. palm + coco fillers was added in the matrix phase of NFRP composite was developed and study the machinability properties by using Abrasive Water Jet Machining (AWJM). NFRP machining in the relationships of material removal rate (MRR), kerf angle and surface roughness has been experimentally examined for various process parameters (nozzle pressure, distance stand and transverse speed). The research values for quality properties (MRR, Kt and Ra) were analysis-based on the trimming factors by developing the Taguchi method. The influence of optimized input process parameters on quality features were examined by utilizing experiential models. From this study, it is noticeable that, filler material in natural fiber composites reduces the kerf angle and the low and very high traverse speed leads the wide disparity in kerf inclination. For obtaining the good surface roughness and material removal rate medium traverse speed and medium stand of distance is the significant parameter respectively and moreover impact of jet pressure on surface finish is 3 times lower than the impact supplied to the surface finish by traverse speed

Thermal and dynamic performance of kenaf/washingtonia fibre-based hybrid composites

The application of hybrid natural fibres incorporated with bio phenolic composites is significant due to their sustainability and low-cost rates. In this paper, two natural fibres composites were prepared using a hand lay-up technique. The thermal stability, dynamic-mechanical, and thermo-mechanical characterisations of kenaf fibre (KF)/Washingtonia Leaf Stalk Fibres (AW)/epoxy biocomposite were investigated in this paper. Thermomechanical analysis (TMA) and dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA), respectively, were used to examine the thermal stability and the coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) and the dynamic mechanical properties of composites, respectively. The Thermogravimetric (TG) analyses showed that the addition of KF and AW enhanced the thermal stability of the epoxy composites. 7AW/3KENAF showed the most significant improvement in thermal stability (Tonset; 284.52 °C and Tmax; 368.25. Furthermore, the hybrid biocomposite exhibited the highest storage modulus (2668.9 MPa) among all other pure and hybrid biocomposites. On the other hand, the TMA findings illustrated that the 50% AW sample exhibited the highest value of CTE (242 μm/m °C) at the maximum temperature (175 °C) among all samples. Briefly, it is obvious that the combination of WA with KENAF enhanced the potential in improving thermal, dimensional and dynamic mechanical characterisations of epoxy composites and can be utilised in building applications that dictate elevated dimensional stability. It was proven that the hybrid biocomposites prepared in this work supported by hybrid natural fibres as strengthened bio fillers might benefit the performance of epoxy composites, which could broaden the application range of industrial and engineering applications and provide novel ways for its effective uses.

Development of crab shell particle reinforced polylactic acid filaments for 3D printing application

In the polymeric 3D printing process, composite material development is based on preparing feedstock material such as polymeric filaments. The present work focuses on recycling crab shell particles as bio fillers for developing Polylactic Acid feedstock material. The extruded filament's intrinsic properties, such as tensile strength, diameter deviation, and surface roughness, were measured to its crab shell composition of 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10 wt%. The results depict that the maximum tensile strength of 61.3 MPa was achieved on the 8% crab shell -reinforced PLA polymeric filaments. A minimum diameter deviation of 0.001 was observed on the 2% crab shell-reinforced PLA filaments. The surface morphology of the extruded PLA/crab shell filaments of 8% possesses uniform distribution of added particles in the polymeric matrix. From the overall results, the PLA/crab shell filament of 8% composition is an optimal composition feedstock material for the 3D printing application to develop biomaterials like bio-scaffolds.

Effect of bio-fibers and inorganic fillers reinforcement on mechanical and thermal characteristics on carbon-kevlar-basalt-innegra fiber bio/ synthetic epoxy hybrid composites

The hybridization of plant cellulose fillers in polymeric laminates is applied in different applications because of several benefits. The present investigation deals with the fabrication of four other eight-layer laminates by reinforcing bio fillers (coir, sisal, and hemp), Titanium carbide (TiC) nanoparticles, and ranging the stacking sequence of synthetic fabrics (carbon, Kevlar, Basalt, and Innegra) with bio/synthetic epoxy from wet layup technique. The fabricated laminate's characteristics were appraised by examining density, porosity, water absorption, flexural, impact strength, shore hardness, and thermal stability. It was observed from the experimental outcomes that the 3F8LTSE (Sisal, hemp, coir fillers, 2 layers of Carbon, Kevlar, Basalt, Innegra fabrics, and Titanium carbide reinforced synthetic epoxy) composite exhibited higher mechanical characteristics with a higher flexural strength (312.58 MPa), impact strength (35.13 kJ/m2), and shore D hardness (84.95), and decreased water absorption capacity by justifying its adequate for lightweight structures. The scanning electron microscope displayed the fiber pull out, debonding, and dispersion of fillers within the matrix of the composite. The current study also evaluates the prediction and performance of the artificial neural network (ANN) to model the physical, mechanical and thermal characteristics of bio/synthetic epoxy hybrid composites. However, the ANN model was more precise and proved that it is a primary method to optimize the properties of the fabricated bio/synthetic epoxy laminate.

Effect of particles morphology on the effective elastic properties of bio–composites reinforced by seashells: Numerical investigations

Seashell waste, mainly composed of calcium carbonate and made of a complex microstructure, has been increasingly used as a bio–filler for composite materials, in a crushed or powdered state. Seashell particles present various sizes and shapes which in turn could affect the mechanical properties of the composites. The main aim of this work is to investigate the effect of particles size and shape and inter–phase properties on the overall elastic properties of bio–composite reinforced by seashell particles. For that purpose, a morphological study based on particles size measurement and shape analysis, was first carried out in order to identify the morphological distribution of seashell particles. Seashell particles were classified into six diameters and six types of shape. Afterwards, a numerical homogenization based on finite element and representative elementary volume is used to compute the effective elastic properties of bio–composites, which include bulk modulus, shear modulus, and Young’s modulus. We assumed a perfect bond at the polyester/seashell particle inter–phase. Then we incorporate an inter–phase surrounding the seashell particles by considering variable properties (thickness, number of layers). In the present work, the calculations are carried out for two types of microstructures according to particles shapes. Several microstructure configurations were considered by varying particles sizes and volume fractions 6.6, 13.7, 21.4, 25.5, and 29.8%. The results showed that adding seashell particles significantly improves the effective elastic properties of polyester composite and that the morphology of seashell particles and the inter–phase structure has a negligible effect on the effective elastic properties of bio–composite. As for inter–phase thickness, it could have a considerable effect on the effective elastic properties of bio–composites.

Influence of rice husk fillers on mechanical properties of banana/epoxy natural fiber hybrid composites

Increasing environmental pollution, climate change, and the use of non-biodegradable or renewable resources have become major concerns for researchers in the modern industrialized world. It isbelievedthat if we are to build a sustainable future, we must address these issues while also protecting the capabilities of theforthcoming generations to achieve their own requirements. Compared to synthetic reinforcing fiber natural fiber has different advantages such as harmlessness, low densities, lower processing costs, and similar comparable strength. In this experiment banana fiber reinforced with the epoxy and rice husk bio filler hybrid composites were made and the Mechanical properties of for these hybrid composites were characterized. Different volume fractions of fiber with various composite samples were made by using the traditional hand layup method and pressure applied at moderate temperature. All the hybrid samples were tested under tensile, flexural, and impact loading, the interfaces of fiber matrix were evaluated and the fractured surface structures were analyzed using a Scanning electron microscope (SEM). From the results, it was observed that the composite samples with 30 % banana fibers and 10 % rice husk exhibited better mechanical properties when compared with the other composite compositions.

Effect of green hybrid fillers loading on mechanical and thermal properties of vinyl ester composites

AbstractThe need for eco‐friendly materials has been attracted due to renewability, abundance availability, low cost, and so on. Therefore, the search for bio fillers for the fabrication of bio‐based composite materials is gaining more and more attention in both academic and industry circles because it promotes sustainability. The present study represents the utilization of biomass solid waste in the hybrid form of Tamarind Seed and Date Seed Filler (TSF/DSF) into polymer reinforced composite which has been explored for the first time by a compression molding technique. These fillers are bio‐waste that can be obtained at a minimal cost from renewable sources. An attempt has been made to use these hybrid fillers to reinforce the matrix ranging from 0 to 50 wt%, and their physical, mechanical, and thermal properties were investigated. In general, the inclusion of hybrid fillers increases mechanical properties, although the addition of hybrid fillers had only a minor impact on thermal properties. When compared to the pure vinyl ester resin, the hybrid fillers reinforced composites revealed a significant enhancement in tensile, flexural, impact, and hardness properties, with improvements of 1.51 times, 1.44 times, 1.87 times, and 1.46 times respectively, at 10 wt% filler loading. Filler matrix interaction of fractured mechanical testing samples was evaluated by scanning electron microscope. Based on the findings, hybrid filler reinforced composites may be suitable for applications where cost is a consideration and where minor compromises in thermal qualities are acceptable.

Exploring the mechanical and bacterial prospects of flexible polyurethane foam with chitosan

In this work, chitosan (CT) with different ratios (0–5 wt.%) was utilized as a bio filler in polyurethane flexible (PUF) foam to increase mechanical performance and bacterial inhibition characteristics. The chemical structure of CT and polyurethane flexible foam/ chitosan (PUF/CT) composites was examined using FTIR spectroscopy. Furthermore, the cross-link density of PUF/CT composites was examined using the Flory and Rhener equation. Moreover, the PUF/CT composites’ thermal stability was observed utilizing TGA analysis. Further, the morphology and phase behavior of the PUF/CT composites were investigated using SEM and DSC techniques, respectively. The results showed that the cross-link density, thermal stability, cavities sizes, and the glass transition temperature of soft segments Tg(ss) increased with increased CT wt.% content. Besides, characteristics like apparent density, compressive strength, elongation at break, and tensile strength were tested. The results indicated that the density and compressive strength increased by 128.00% and 305.64% for PUF/CT5%, respectively, compared with unfilled PUF foam. At the same time, the tensile strength and elongation at break enhanced 162.50% and 174.30% for PUF/CT4%, respectively, compared with unfilled PUF foam. Finally, the antibacterial test was carried out for PUF/CT composites using the broth dilution procedure. The results revealed that the bacterial growth was inhibited by increasing CT wt.% content. Thus, the obtained composites are promising for industrial biological applications such as packaging and medical intensive care units.Graphical abstract

Thermal kinetics and morphological investigation of alkaline treated rice husk biomass

Agro waste bio mass are creating challenges for environment in term of air pollution due to improper disposal. Rice milling is the process in which rice husk is produced as by-product. The agro-waste rice husk has tremendous potential to be used either in its raw form or in ash form. The inherent component of this waste cellulose provides enhanced properties in a reinforced composite when used as filler. Rice husk is the hard outer layer and covering rice seed, which makes reinforcement challenging in its original form. Fiber surface treatment significantly improves adhesion with matrix and various thermo chemical properties of filler as well as of composites. NaOH treatment is cost-effective and it ensures the adhesion with matrix by removal of hemicellulose and lignin. The chemical treatment of agro-waste (rice husk) is performed with 5% alkali solutions of NaOH in water. Results are compared with the properties of untreated rice husk for thermal and morphological characterizations. In the present work, we are trying to quantify the impact of chemical treatment on rice husk thermal decomposition and its kinetics. Thermogravimetric analysis and kinetics study of thermal degradation, provide key input towards pyrolysis pattern of rice husk, while FTIR and SEM analysis provide the prospects of this bio filler using a reinforcing agent to develop green composite and productive disposal. The FTIR data helps to find the possibilities of blending different bio fillers and natural fibers to find suitable reinforcing substances. The average activation energy of treated fiber is noted as 137.95 by KAS method and 108.08 by FWO method as compared to 55.56 by KAS method & 54.26 by FWO method for untreated rice husk.

A spatial distribution effect of almond shell bio filler on physical, mechanical, thermal deflection and water absorption properties of vinyl ester polymer composite

AbstractThe present work deals with the effective utilization of almond shell bio‐waste fillers in the production of vinyl ester polymer composites. The almond shell particle surface was chemically modified by alkaline treatment. The almond shell particles with varying weight percentages of 5%–30% were used to prepare the vinyl ester polymer composite. The experimental results show that a 25% addition of alkaline‐treated almond shell particles significantly improved the mechanical properties of the composite when compared to pure vinyl ester and untreated almond‐filled composite samples. The highest tensile, flexural, impact strength, and Shore D hardness of the 25% alkaline‐treated almond shell composite were 54, 142 MPa, 31, and 79 kJ/m2, respectively. This was due to the alkaline treatment of almond shell particles, which improved the interfacial adhesion between the vinyl ester matrix and almond particles. The heat deflection temperature of the 25% alkaline treated almond shell particle‐filled vinyl ester matrix composite was 72°C. The thermal insulating characteristics of alkali‐treated almond shells were improved due to the reduction of quickly thermal degradable materials such as hemicelluloses and lignin, as indicated by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopic data, and more exposure of minerals to the surface, as confirmed by energy dispersive X‐ray analysis. The addition of alkaline‐treated almond shell particles improves the characteristics of the vinyl ester matrix and allows the development of biocomposites.