Biobased Polyethylene Terephthalate Research Articles

Life Cycle Comparative Assessment of Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) Plastic Bottles: A Case Study of Drinking Bottled Water in Ramathibodi Hospital, Thailand

In the current context where all sectors aim to promote sustainable development, hospitals, as large organizations with significant human interactions, face challenges in managing not only medical waste but also general waste such as water bottles. Improper management of these wastes can lead to environmental problems and high disposal costs. This study performed a life cycle assessment (LCA) of regular (petroleum-based) and alternative (bio-based) polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles used in Ramathibodi Hospital, Thailand, to identify effective strategies for mitigating environmental impacts. The assessment was divided into three scenarios: label-free bottles, bio-based bottles, and 100% recycling. The results indicate that using label-free bottles instead of conventional ones merely reduces environmental impacts by 2%. Transitioning to 30% and 100% bio-based PET can decrease greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by 7 and 13 tons of CO2 eq per year, respectively. Currently, the hospital's PET bottles contribute 56.2 tons of CO2 eq annually. Health impacts associated with conventional PET bottles amount to 11.70 disability-adjusted life years (DALYs), a comprehensive measure that includes both mortality and morbidity. Meanwhile, 30% and 100% bio-based bottles reduce this to 7.35 and 4.87 DALYs, respectively. Achieving 100% recyclability in bottle management can cut GHG emissions from disposal processes by up to 90%. Moreover, combining the use of 100% bio-based PET bottles with 100% recycling can lower GHG emissions by up to 40% compared to current practices. These findings highlight the potential for significant environmental and health benefits through improved bottled water management strategies in hospitals.

Green Biobased Polyethylene Terephthalate (bioPET) Composites Reinforced with Different Lengths of Basalt Fiber for Technical Applications

Green Biobased Polyethylene Terephthalate (bioPET) Composites Reinforced with Different Lengths of Basalt Fiber for Technical Applications

Recent Progress in the Selective Hydrodeoxygenation of 5‐Hydroxymethylfurfural to 2,5‐Dimethylfuran With Metal‐Containing Catalysts

AbstractLiquid fuel, such as 2,5‐dimethylfuran (DMF), from biomass, is an efficient, potential alternative to fossil‐based fuels due to its exceptional properties, including lower volatility, a remarkable octane number, heightened energy density, and immiscibility with water. DMF can be the starting substrate for producing bio‐based p‐xylene through the Diels‐Alder reaction with ethylene to produce biobased polyethylene terephthalate (PET). This review, thus, discusses the catalytic role of various precious and non‐precious metals on different supports, such as carbon, metal‐oxide, zeolite, and hydrotalcite, for the production of DMF via catalytic hydrodeoxygenation (HDO) of 5‐hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) based on the previously reported literature. Various characteristic properties of the employed catalytic materials, such as particle size, metal‐support and substrate interaction, surface area, porosity, and acidic and basic sites, are delineated, playing a crucial role in the HDO of HMF to DMF. The influence of various reaction parameters, such as hydrogen atmosphere, solvents‐ including hydrogen donor solvents‐ and temperature are also discussed.

Mechanical, Thermal and Performance Evaluation of Hybrid Basalt/Carbon Fibers Reinforced Bio-Based Polyethylene Terephthalate (BioPet) Composites

Looking at the dynamically developing market of engineering materials, there is a need to create newer functional composites. Today's economic situation related to high energy prices and environmental threats force industry to conduct sustainable production. Polymer composites based on plant raw materials are increasingly appearing on global markets, which are light, have good mechanical properties and are also pro-ecological. This work involved the production of hybrid composites based on bio-based poly (ethylene terephthalate) by means of injection molding. Two types of fibers were used simultaneously as the reinforcement phase: basalt fibers and carbon fibers in the amount of 5, 7.5, and 10 wt% of each. The produced materials were subjected to a wide range of mechanical, thermal, and functional characteristics. The experimental data were compared with the theoretical results which were calculated from different micromodels. The studies showed that with the addition of the filler, the mechanical properties of the produced composites increased, but the optimal content was found for composites with 7.5/7.5 wt% addition of fibers, where the improvement was – 81%, 337%, and 25%, for tensile strength, Young's modulus, and impact strength, respectively. In the produced materials, the thermal properties of composites were also improved, where the shrinkage decreased by min. half, and linear coefficient at least 3 times. Sufficient adhesion between the fibers and the matrix was confirmed by SEM images and mechanical micromodels, which confirmed the highest efficiency of reinforcement with a total content of 15 wt% of fibers. To assess the influence of extreme conditions on the behavior of composites, hydrolytic degradation was carried out, which showed that the addition of fibers will not increase water absorption. The mechanical tests of the incubated materials lead to the conclusion that the produced materials could be successfully used in long-term applications because the properties obtained during the tensile test have deteriorated by only max. 5%. The work showed for the first time the modification of bioPET using two types of fibers introduced simultaneously. Hybridization of bioPET with basalt and carbon fibers has shown that it is possible to create very durable composites with a high Young's modulus. The work showed that different fibers are responsible for increasing other parameters – basalt fibers increase strength, while carbon fibers increase Young's modulus. The research may contribute to the popularization of bio-based polymer composites that have high strength for low weight and are a cheaper equivalent than polyamide-based composites.

Production of biobased polyethylene terephthalate and its precursors for diversification in the global sugarcane industry

The technical and economic viability of producing fully bio-based polyethylene terephthalate (PET) or its monomers was investigated. First generation (1 G) biorefineries, utilizing A-molasses, and combined first and second generation (1G2G) biorefineries, utilizing molasses and sugarcane bagasse and brown leaves, were considered. Simulations were developed for self-sufficient biorefineries, where the energy demands were met by utilizing the existing sugar mill boiler, accompanied by a new medium-pressure boiler and biogas generator. 1G2G scenarios required the replacement of the sugar mill boiler with a new, high-efficiency combined heat and power (CHP) plant, where electricity and useful heat were generated from a portion of 2 G biomass and other residues. 1 G PET was unprofitable at a minimum selling price (MSP) of $2946.t−1. 1 G production of Ethylene ($1847.t−1), monoethylene glycol (MEG) ($1648.t−1), 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) ($1576.t−1) and iso-butanol (iButOH) ($1292.t−1) were more economically viable than PET, terephthalic acid (TPA) ($2689.t−1) and p-xylene (PX) ($2983.t−1), due to less complex processing and lower energy demands. 1G2G biorefineries were less profitable than 1 G equivalents, due to the cost of pretreatment and new CHP plants. The most profitable scenario was 1 G iButOH, with an MSP 19.0 % lower than its market price. New technologies to produce p-xylene and TPA from biomass in fewer steps, such as Virent Inc.’s Bioforming® technology, could potentially improve the economic viability of PET in the future.

Comparing the financial costs and carbon neutrality of polyester fibres produced from 100% bio-based PET, 100% recycled PET, or in combination

AbstractThe rise of fast fashion has led to challenges in sustainable production and recycling of polyester textile waste. Bio-based polyethylene terephthalate (bio-PET) and the enzymatic hydrolysis of PET textiles may offer two solutions for bio and circular clothing. This study designed and simulated scaled enzymatic hydrolysis of fossil PET into ethylene glycol (r-EG) and purified terephthalic acid (r-PTA), the production of bio-EG and bio-PTA from the wheat straw ethanol (EtOH) and corn stover isobutene (IBN), respectively, and the production of PET polyester textile fibres from these monomers. The research goal was to determine whether bio-PET, r-PET, or their mixture achieves better positive profitability and NPV2023 and carbon neutrality in textile fibres. The financial returns and carbon emissions for r-PET fibres with a bio-PET content of 0%, 20%, 40%, 60%, 80% to 100% was estimated for scenario 1 (a newly constructed plant), scenario 2 (no capital costs for the EtOH or IBN processes), and scenario 3 (no capital costs for the EtOH, IBN, and enzymatic hydrolysis processes). While scenario 1 was not able to generate positive net profits or NPV2023, scenarios 2 and 3 were able to attain financial sustainability when the bio-PET content was ≤ 40%. On the other hand, increasing the amount of bio-PET content in the polyester fibre from 0 to 100 wt.% decreased its carbon footprint from 2.99 to 0.46 kg CO2eq./kg of PET fibre.

A community of marine bacteria with potential to biodegrade petroleum-based and biobased microplastics.

The biodegradability conditions for both, petroleum-based plastics and bioplastics needs to be evaluated under environmentally realistic conditions. We assessed the biodegradability of low-density polyethylene and biobased polyethylene terephthalate microplastic films by a consortium of marine bacteria during 45days. Bacterial growth and pH were higher in the samples inoculated with bacteria, compared to the controls. Fourier Infrared spectroscopy-Attenuated Total Reflectance and scanning electron microscopy indicated changes in the chemical functional groups, and the presence of fractures and biofilms in the surface of both plastics exposed to the bacterial community, respectively. The chemical oxygen demand further indicated signs of biodegradation of both polymers. Specific groups of bacteria showed preference for each type of microplastic. Overall, our results show signs of biodegradation, or at least biodeterioration and biofragmentation, of both types of plastics, when subjected to the selected bacterial community. Biobased PET was no more prone to biodegradation than conventional, petroleum-based LDPE.

Can we improve the environmental benefits of biobased PET production through local biomass value chains? – A life cycle assessment perspective

The transition to a bioeconomy is one of the ambitions of the European Union for 2030. Biobased industries play an essential role in this transition. However, there has been an on-going discussion about the actual benefit of using biomass to produce biobased products, specifically the use of agricultural materials (e.g., corn and sugarcane). This paper presents the environmental impact assessment of 30% and 100% biobased polyethylene terephthalate production using European biomass supply chains (e.g., sugar beet, wheat, and miscanthus). An integral assessment between the life cycle assessment methodology and the global sensitivity assessment is presented as an early-stage support tool to propose and select supply chains that improve the environmental performance of biobased polyethylene terephthalate production. From the results, miscanthus is the best option for the production of biobased polyethylene terephthalate: promoting European local supply chains, reducing greenhouse gas emissions (process and land-use change), and generating lower impacts in midpoint categories related to resource depletion, ecosystem quality, and human health. This tool can help improving the environmental performance of processes that could boost the shift to a bioeconomy.

Life cycle optimization of the supply chain for biobased chemicals with local biomass resources

Developing a biobased chemical industry that copes with the current environmental challenges relies on understanding the influence of the different stages of the value chain on economic and environmental performance. This paper investigates the use of a life cycle optimization framework to assess trade-offs between environmental and economic criteria for designing supply chains for biobased polyethylene terephthalate as a case study. A multi-objective optimization model was formulated to account for the environmental impacts (through life cycle assessment) and total costs (through life cycle costing) of the case study. High environmental priority (w = 0.9) in the design of the supply chain resulted in environmental gains (in 8 out of 9 midpoint indicators) with low increments (<10 %) of the total supply chain costs. The hotspot analysis supported identifying the stages (processing plants) of the supply chain where environmental and economic improvements are required. As the environmental priority increased, a rebound effect was evidenced where the mitigation of the environmental impact in different processing plants negatively affected the economic performance of other processing plants. Therefore, close collaboration with all value chain actors is required to achieve the most optimal configuration for supply chains of biobased polyethylene terephthalate.

Design of biobased supply chains on a life cycle basis: A bi-objective optimization model and a case study of biobased polyethylene terephthalate (PET)

Bioplastics are considered a sustainable alternative to (partly) substitute fossil-based plastics. Nevertheless, it is still uncertain if the use of biomass for the production of bioplastics can mitigate the environmental impact of fossil-based plastics and simultaneously provide economic benefits. An optimization model is proposed to design biobased supply chain networks that account for economic (total costs) and environmental (greenhouse gas emissions) criteria. Life cycle costing and life cycle assessment were used to evaluate the economic and environmental costs of the biobased polyethylene terephthalate (PET) production using sugar beet and wheat as feedstock. The 100% biobased PET production evidenced higher economic and environmental costs than the 30% biobased PET production. The feedstock selection played a key role, whereas the use of wheat for both 30% and 100% biobased PET had the highest costs and greenhouse gas emissions. It is highlighted that the economic performance of the biobased terephthalic acid (PTA) production, the feedstock selection (sugar beet), and the carbon tax scenario (>100 €/t CO 2 ) are key parameters for designing a sustainable biobased PET supply chain.

Lignocellulosic biomass as renewable feedstock for biodegradable and recyclable plastics production: A sustainable approach

Rapid increment in fossil-derived single-use plastic disposal has led to human-made plastic mountains and leading to ecological imbalance. Therefore, the development of alternative environmentally friendly, biodegradable, and biobased plastics using lignocellulosic biomass renders sustainability. Lignocellulosic biomass offers an unprecedented opportunity to produce renewable fuels, chemicals, and materials for the replacement of fossils-based derivatives. The present review comprehensively delineates the potential of lignocellulosic biomass to produce biodegradable and recyclable plastics and plastic composites. Initially, various available pretreatment methods for the deconstruction of natural recalcitrance for fuel and chemical production are summarized, along with the challenges and scope of the integrated biorefinery approach. Energy chemicals such as ethanol, hydrogen produced under biorefinery approach may serve as precursor for bioplastics productions for sustainable bio future. Recyclable and biodegradable polymers such as polyglycolic acid, polyhydroxyalkanoates, polylactic acid, polybutylene succinate, polyvinyl alcohol, biobased polyethylene, biobased polyethylene terephthalate and cellulose acetate have been critically reviewed. Furthermore, the limitations, hurdles, and future scope of commercially available biorefinery industries are deliberated. Thus, technical development and integration in current biorefinery could promote the economical production of biobased biodegradable and recyclable plastics, simultaneously addressing waste biomass utilization constraints.

Comparative cradle-to-grave life cycle assessment of bio-based and petrochemical PET bottles

This article presents a life cycle assessment of bio-based polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles with a cradle to grave scope and provides a comparison with petrochemical PET bottles for 13 environmental impact categories. Besides the baseline bio-based PET bottles, which are produced from Brazilian sugarcane reflecting status-quo, two alternative hypothetical bio-based product systems were considered: European wheat straw and European crops market mix composed of maize, wheat and sugar beet. The land-use change (LUC) impacts were assessed based on a deterministic model. The end-of-life impact was assessed using the EASETECH model. Baseline bio-based PET bottles performed overall worse than conventional petrochemical PET bottles, offering only better performance (about 10%) in abiotic depletion (fossil fuels). Comparable performance is observed for climate change (2% difference without the LUC, and 7% with LUC impacts). Using European crops for ethanol production (alternative 1) instead of Brazilian sugarcane resulted in a worse environmental performance, due to lower yields attained compared to Brazilian sugarcane. When wheat straw was considered as biomass feedstock for ethanol production (alternative 2), similar environmental performance with petrochemical PET bottles was seen.

A Conversation with John Bissell

A Conversation with John Bissell

Mechanical Recycling of Partially Bio-Based and Recycled Polyethylene Terephthalate Blends by Reactive Extrusion with Poly(styrene-co-glycidyl methacrylate).

In the present study, partially bio-based polyethylene terephthalate (bio-PET) was melt-mixed at 15–45 wt% with recycled polyethylene terephthalate (r-PET) obtained from remnants of the injection blowing process of contaminant-free food-use bottles. The resultant compounded materials were thereafter shaped into pieces by injection molding for characterization. Poly(styrene-co-glycidyl methacrylate) (PS-co-GMA) was added at 1–5 parts per hundred resin (phr) of polyester blend during the extrusion process to counteract the ductility and toughness reduction that occurred in the bio-PET pieces after the incorporation of r-PET. This random copolymer effectively acted as a chain extender in the polyester blend, resulting in injection-molded pieces with slightly higher mechanical resistance properties and nearly the same ductility and toughness than those of neat bio-PET. In particular, for the polyester blend containing 45 wt% of r-PET, elongation at break (εb) increased from 10.8% to 378.8% after the addition of 5 phr of PS-co-GMA, while impact strength also improved from 1.84 kJ·m−2 to 2.52 kJ·m−2. The mechanical enhancement attained was related to the formation of branched and larger macromolecules by a mechanism of chain extension based on the reaction of the multiple glycidyl methacrylate (GMA) groups present in PS-co-GMA with the hydroxyl (–OH) and carboxyl (–COOH) terminal groups of both bio-PET and r-PET. Furthermore, all the polyester blend pieces showed thermal and dimensional stabilities similar to those of neat bio-PET, remaining stable up to more than 400 °C. Therefore, the use low contents of the tested multi-functional copolymer can successfully restore the properties of bio-based but non-biodegradable polyesters during melt reprocessing with their recycled petrochemical counterparts and an effective mechanical recycling is achieved.

Development of Sustainable and Cost-Competitive Injection-Molded Pieces of Partially Bio-Based Polyethylene Terephthalate through the Valorization of Cotton Textile Waste.

This study presents the valorization of cotton waste from the textile industry for the development of sustainable and cost-competitive biopolymer composites. The as-received linter of recycled cotton was first chopped to obtain short fibers, called recycled cotton fibers (RCFs), which were thereafter melt-compounded in a twin-screw extruder with partially bio-based polyethylene terephthalate (bio-PET) and shaped into pieces by injection molding. It was observed that the incorporation of RCF, in the 1–10 wt% range, successfully increased rigidity and hardness of bio-PET. However, particularly at the highest fiber contents, the ductility and toughness of the pieces were considerably impaired due to the poor interfacial adhesion of the fibers to the biopolyester matrix. Interestingly, RCF acted as an effective nucleating agent for the bio-PET crystallization and it also increased thermal resistance. In addition, the overall dimensional stability of the pieces was improved as a function of the fiber loading. Therefore, bio-PET pieces containing 3–5 wt% RCF presented very balanced properties in terms of mechanical strength, toughness, and thermal resistance. The resultant biopolymer composite pieces can be of interest in rigid food packaging and related applications, contributing positively to the optimization of the integrated biorefinery system design and also to the valorization of textile wastes.

Recent developments in non-biodegradable biopolymers: Precursors, production processes, and future perspectives.

During the last decades, biopolymers experienced a renaissance. The increasing limitation of fossil resources in combination with a public demand for environmental-friendly and sustainable processes has led to the formation of a market for biobased plastics. Especially non-biodegradable bioplastics are very interesting materials, as they combine the benefits of reduced carbon footprint during production and increased resource efficiency with the persistence to microbial degradation. Consequently, persistent biomass-derived plastic materials are highly promising to substitute conventional fossil-based plastics in applications, which require durability and longevity. Non-biodegradable bioplastics derived from renewable resources represent 57% of all bioplastics with partially biobased polyethylene terephthalate currently leading the market, followed by biobased polyamides and fully biomass-derived polyethylene. An exceptional biopolymer with thermoplastic properties was discovered only two decades ago, when-for the first time-polythioesters were synthesized by microbial fermentation. Though synthesized by bacteria, it turned out that polythioesters are non-biodegradable by microorganisms in contrast to all other biopolymers and thus, represent a novel non-biodegradable bioplastic material. This review gives an overview about the recent development and progress regarding bioplastics with special focus on persistent bioplastics. We describe the generation of the respective monomers from biomass-derived substrates and summarize the current status of production, which range from the laboratory-scale up to large-scale industrial processes.

Pepsi joins consortium for biobased bottles

PepsiCo has joined Danone, Nestle Waters, and the biobased polymer firm Origin Materials in the NaturALL Bottle Alliance, a research consortium working to accelerate development of beverage containers made with 100% biobased polyethylene terephthalate (PET). The alliance, formed in 2017, plans to use waste biomass, such as cardboard and sawdust, as feedstocks so as to not compete with food resources. It has selected a site in Sarnia, Ontario, to construct a demonstration plant that can process 18,000 metric tons of biomass per year. The plant is expected to open by 2020 and will initially produce 95% biobased PET. Pepsi rival Coca-Cola is separately working to produce fully biobased PET with p-xylene raw material from partners Virent and Gevo. Coca-Cola is also investing in polyethylene furanoate (PEF), a competing packaging polymer. Notably, Coca-Cola is backing efforts by Synvina, a partnership of BASF and Avantium, to produce the PEF intermediate 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid

Canada hub expands by two

A hub for biobased chemicals firms in Sarnia, Ontario, will grow by two companies working to scale up their manufacturing processes. California-based start-up Origin Materials will build a demonstration facility at the hub to make p-xylene, a precursor for polyethylene terephthalate (PET), from lignocellulosic biomass. Origin earlier partnered with Nestle Waters and Danone to develop 100% biobased PET beverage bottles. Meanwhile, S2G BioChem will build a demonstration plant to make 2,000 metric tons per year of xylitol, propylene glycol, and ethylene glycol from sugar. Xylitol is a sugar alcohol that is used as a low-calorie sweetener. Bioindustrial Innovation Canada will provide undisclosed funding for the S2G project. Both firms expect to construct their facilities in 2018. The Sarnia hub is already home to succinic acid maker BioAmber. Comet Biorefining plans to open a cellulosic dextrose plant there in 2018.

Nestlé, Danone look to renewable bottles

Nestle Waters and Danone are the latest beverage makers to investigate biobased polyethylene terephthalate (PET). They are teaming up with the California-based start-up Origin Materials to form the NaturALL Bottle Alliance, which hopes to have water bottles made from renewable PET on store shelves by 2020. PET is typically made from the petrochemicals ethylene glycol and purified terephthalic acid (PTA). Since 2009, Coca-Cola has been using biobased ethylene glycol in its PlantBottle, but it and other companies have struggled to come up with an alternative to PTA derived from petrochemical p-xylene. Origin was formerly known as Micromidas, which got its start with a fermentation process for converting municipal wastewater into polyhydroxyalkanoate. In 2011, the firm licensed a technology from the University of California, Davis. Now Origin’s main focus, the process uses hydrochloric acid to convert biomass into 5-chloromethylfurfural (CMF), which is reduced to 2,5-dimethyl furan. That undergoes a Diels-Al...

Comparative life cycle assessment of fossil and bio-based polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles

Both biofuels and bioplastics are often regarded as sustainable solutions to current environmental problems such as climate change, fossil depletion and acidification. However, both have been criticized for being economically costly, competing with other societally beneficial goods such as food, and offering limited environmental benefits compared to their fossil counterparts. This study provides a comparative environmental Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) for 100% bio-based polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles, versus fully fossil-based and partially bio-based PET bottles. An attributional life cycle assessment (aLCA) and sensitivity analysis of key assumptions is carried out to compare cradle-to-factory-gate impacts (i.e. feedstock extraction, component production and product manufacturing) of twelve PET bottle production scenarios. Results indicate that woody-biomass based PET bottles have 21% less global warming potential and require 22% less fossil fuel than their fossil based counterparts, but perform worse in other categories such as ecotoxicity and ozone depletion impacts. Results are sensitive to impact allocation assumptions as well as parameter input assumptions related to isobutanol production. In most categories, with avoided impact credits considered, forest residue feedstocks result in overall better environmental performance than corn stover feedstocks for bio-PET bottle production. The variability in avoided burdens could alter the relative environmental rankings for fossil and bio-PET bottles. Depending on the biomass feedstock, extraction and pre-processing are likely more emission-intensive than the corresponding fossil refinery processes due to the significant upstream emissions embodied in the application of fertilizers, and the significant chemical and energy inputs required to break recalcitrant lignocellulosic bonds.