Iron Bioavailability Research Articles

Impact of a virtual antenatal intervention for improved diet and iron intake in Kapilvastu district, Nepal - the VALID randomized controlled trial

IntroductionCounseling, together with iron and folic acid supplements, can improve hemoglobin levels in pregnant women, but few interventions have tested a virtual method of delivering counseling. We hypothesized that a virtual counseling intervention delivered via a mobile device (mHealth) would prevent and treat anemia, compared with routine antenatal care (ANC).MethodsVirtual antenatal intervention for improved diet and iron intake (VALID) was a non-blinded parallel group two-arm, individually randomized superiority trial (1:1 allocation). Participants were pregnant women who were married, aged 13–49 years, able to answer questions, 12–28 weeks’ gestation and living in Kapilvastu district, Nepal. Women were randomized to receive routine ANC (control arm), or ANC plus a virtual antenatal intervention of two problem-solving counseling sessions via video call. The primary outcome was iron folic acid (IFA) tablet compliance (consumption on 12 or more days of the previous 14 days). Secondary outcomes were dietary diversity, promoted food consumption, iron bioavailability enhancement, and knowledge of iron-rich foods. Primary logistic regression analysis was by intention-to-treat, adjusting for baseline values.ResultsWe enrolled 319 pregnant women (161 control, 158 intervention) from 23 January 2022 to 6 May 2022 and analyzed outcomes in 144 control and 127 intervention women. Compliance with IFA increased in both arms. In the intervention arm, compliance increased by 29.7 percentage points (pp) (49.0–78.7%) and 19.8 pp. in the control arm (53.8–73.6%). Despite the more significant increase in the intervention arm, we found no intervention effect upon IFA compliance (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 1.33; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.75, 2.35; p = 0.334), dietary diversity, or ANC visits. The intervention increased knowledge of iron-rich foods (coefficient 0.96; 95% CI: 0.50, 1.41; p < 0.001), consumption of promoted foods (aOR: 1.81; 95% CI: 1.08, 3.02; p = 0.023), behavior to enhance iron bioavailability (aOR: 4.41; 95% CI: 1.23, 15.83; p = 0.023), and coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) knowledge (aOR: 4.06; 95% CI: 1.56, 10.54; p = 0.004). The total intervention cost was US$35,193, and the cost per pregnant woman receiving two virtual counseling sessions was US$277.ConclusionVirtual counseling can improve antenatal health behaviors, such as the consumption of promoted foods and methods to enhance bioavailability. Improved IFA consumption and ANC attendance may require additional family/community support.Clinical trial registrationhttps://www.isrctn.com/ISRCTN17842200, identifier ISRCTN17842200.

Transportation and transformation of sedimentary Fe speciation in the northern South China Sea

The delivery of bioavailable iron (Fe) to the marine environment has important implications for marine biogeochemical cycling. However, only limited studies have explored the transportation and transformation of sediment Fe in oxic open marginal seas. In this study, we compiled and analyzed newly measured and published Fe speciation data for sediments in the northern South China Sea. The expected FeT/Al ratio of marine sediment calculated from river discharge is consistent with the measured one. This indicates limited estuarine trap removal occurred during the seaward input of riverine particulate Fe. However, the proportion of Fe oxides within the total Fe pool (Feox/FeT) in offshore sediments (0.28 ± 0.03) is lower than that in source river particulates (>0.38). We propose that the transformation of Fe oxides into authigenic Fe-bearing clay minerals during reverse weathering may be the best explanation. Furthermore, the Feox/FeT ratios in sediments increase from shelf to basin and have a good positive correlation with the contents of fine-grained fraction (<4 μm). We argue that this redistribution of reactive Fe oxides from shelf to basin is mainly controlled by physical shuttle (sorting). In addition, the Fe speciation of deep (>50 cmbsf) sediments in the northern South China Sea is influenced by diagenesis. We conclude that, unlike the low-O2 continental margins, the oxic northern South China Sea mainly serves as an Fe sink.

Fermented Quinoa and Canihua in Plant‐Based Diets Increase Iron and Zinc Bioavailability in Growing Rats

ABSTRACTThis study aimed at evaluating the effects of non‐fermented and fermented pseudocereal flours, quinoa and canihua, on iron and zinc bioavailability in Wistar rats. Two diets prepared with 92% fermented quinoa or 79.5% fermented canihua were compared with diets prepared with the same amount of non‐fermented pseudocereals. Other two quinoa diets were prepared with 60% non‐fermented or fermented quinoa and compared with a refence diet which was free of phytates. Body weight, feed efficiency ratio, and the absorption, retention and bioavailability of iron and zinc were evaluated. While body weight and feed efficiency ratio were higher (p &lt; 0.05) in animals after non‐fermented diets, the results of mineral absorption and bioavailability were consistently higher in the diets containing fermented pseudocereals. Iron concentration in the livers of animals after the fermented quinoa (92%) and canihua diet (79.5%), were 34% and 30% higher than after the diets with non‐fermented pseudocereals. Zinc bioavailability, indicated by zinc in femur of animals fed the 60% fermented quinoa diet was 53.2 μg g−1 ZnInt g−1 BW, comparable to that in animals fed a reference diet with no phytates (58.2 μg g−1 ZnInt g−1 BW), and significantly higher (p &lt; 0.05) than in animals fed the non‐fermented quinoa diet (34.5 μg g−1 ZnInt g−1 BW). Zinc bioavailability was mainly influenced by phytate content in the diet (R2 = 0.665 and p = 0.000). The retention of iron in the liver (2220 μg g−1 FeInt g−1 BW) was higher in the diet containing 60% of fermented quinoa than in the non‐fermented diet (1429 μg g−1 ZnInt g−1 BW). Differences in iron absorption were mainly impacted by iron content in the diets (R2 = 0.828 and p = 0.000). In conclusion, the addition of fermented pseudocereals to diets increased the bioavailability of iron and zinc in Wistar rats. These findings will encourage further research into fermented pseudocereals and their potential health effects.

Eight weeks of oral iron supplementation improves postural control in young women with iron deficiency anemia.

This study aimed to explore the effect of 8-week oral supplementation on postural control in young women with iron deficiency anemia (IDA). This study involved 15 women with IDA who received 160 mg of elemental iron daily in the form of dried ferrous sulfate capsules (80 mg twice daily) taken in two divided doses for 8 weeks. The mean velocity of oscillations of the center of pressure (CoPv) was recorded to evaluate postural control pre- and post-supplementation. In addition, simple reaction time (SRT) and weight discrimination tests were performed to assess attentional capacity and proprioceptive acuity, respectively. This study revealed significant increases (P < 0.001, mean difference = 1.83, 95% CI: -17.25; -9.42) in proprioceptive acuity values, as well as decreases in CoPv [firm (EO (P < 0.01, mean difference = 0.52, 95% CI: 0.69; 2.92), EC (P < 0.05, mean difference = 0.75, 95% CI: 0.24; 3.45)) and foam (EO (P < 0.001, mean difference = 0.64, 95% CI: 1.71; 4.44) ; EC (P < 0.001, mean difference = 1.04, 95% CI: 3.51; 7.97))] and SRT (P < 0.001, mean difference = 59.31, 95% CI: 103.02; 168.71) values post-supplementation compared to pre-supplementation. This study showed significant improvements in postural control in young women with IDA after 8 weeks of oral iron supplementation. These improvements were probably related to the enhanced bioavailability of iron, which may have influenced neural processes inducing improvements in attention capacity and proprioceptive acuity.

Assessing Human Iron Kinetics Using Stable Iron Isotopic Techniques.

Stable iron isotope techniques are critical for developing strategies to combat iron deficiency anemia, a leading cause of global disability. There are four primary stable iron isotope methods to assess ferrokinetics in humans. (i) The fecal recovery method applies the principles of a metabolic balance study but offers enhanced accuracy because the amount of iron isotope present in feces can be directly traced back to the labeled dose, distinguishing it from endogenous iron lost in stool from shed intestinal cells. (ii) In the plasma isotope appearance method, plasma samples are collected for several hours after oral dosing to evaluate the rate, quantity, and pattern of iron absorption. Key metrics include the time of peak isotope concentration and the area under the curve. (iii) The erythrocyte iron incorporation method measures iron bioavailability (absorption and erythrocyte iron utilization) from a whole blood sample collected 2 weeks after oral dosing. Simultaneous administration of oral and intravenous tracers allows for separate measurements of iron absorption and iron utilization. These threemethods determine iron absorption by measuring tracer concentrations in feces, serum, or erythrocytes after administration of a tracer. In contrast, (iv) in iron isotope dilution, an innovative new approach, iron of natural composition acts as the tracer, diluting an ad hoc modified isotopic signature obtained via prior isotope administration and equilibration with body iron. This technique enables highly accurate long-term studies of iron absorption, loss, and gain. This review discusses the application of these kinetic methods and their potential to address important questions in hematology andiron biology.

Quantifying the role of iron recycling by Adélie and Emperor penguins over the austral spring and summer in Prydz Bay

In large areas of the Southern Ocean, iron limits phytoplankton production. Although biologically mediated iron recycling has been studied for the higher trophic-level whales and the lower trophic-level krill, less is known of the numerically abundant seabirds foraging in Antarctic waters. In this study, we estimate the magnitude of iron recycled by two Antarctic breeding seabirds, the Adélie and emperor penguins, across the austral spring and summer in the Prydz Bay region, East Antarctica. Their contribution to iron recycling and associated pathways differs in line with their contrasting life history strategies (summer and winter breeding) and their breeding habitat (land and fast ice). We consider their breeding cycle in relation to their terrestrial activities compared to foraging periods at sea. High iron concentration (~419 mg kg−1) in guano of both penguin species suggests that they are a source of regenerated iron. Breeding emperor penguins supplied an average of 237 μmol iron m−2 day−1 on the fast ice that they breed on that eventually ends in the ocean when the ice melts completely in summer (November–February). During their foraging trips, the adult emperor penguins contribute between 7 × 10−5 and 4 × 10−4 μmol iron m−2 day−1, as their foraging ranges increase over the breeding season. In contrast, breeding Adélie penguins supplied between 254 and 1,243 μmol iron m−2 day−1 whilst at their colony, with a fraction of guano entering the ocean via meltwater flowing into the ocean. The flux decreases to 2 × 10−3 to 6 × 10−2 μmol iron m−2 d−1, whilst they are foraging. Our study finds that penguins redistribute a large flux of iron onto their colonies, which may enter the adjacent water through sea ice melt and facilitated through katabatic winds. Despite their high abundance in Prydz Bay, the contribution of penguins to iron flux during their foraging periods is minor, due to the enormous foraging range being covered. Further research into the bioavailability of iron by marine organisms coupled with parallel measurements of seawater iron concentration and phytoplankton uptake experiments will be invaluable in refining iron budgets in both this region and other hotspots along the Antarctic coast where higher trophic-level animals are abundant.

Vitamin C-rich guava consumed with mungbean dal reduces anemia and increases hemoglobin but not iron stores: a randomized controlled trial of food-to-food fortification in Indian children.

BackgroundAdding vitamin C-rich fruit to staples containing iron could be an effective strategy to improve iron bioavailability and thereby reduce iron-deficiency anemia in children. ObjectiveWe aimed to assess the effect of consuming a mungbean-based meal with or without guava fruit on body iron stores, hemoglobin concentration, and anemia of children as part of a school feeding program. MethodsWe conducted a 7-month randomized, controlled trial with 6 to 10-year-old school children (n=200; 46% anemic, 71% iron-deficient) from a rural community in Haryana, North India. Children were assigned to two treatment groups to daily receive either a meal of mungbean dal only (3.0 mg of iron; vitamin C:iron molar ratio ∼0.5:1), or mungbean dal with fresh guava (3.2 mg of iron; ∼170 mg of vitamin C; molar ratio ∼18:1). Meals were served every school day under supervision. The primary outcome was body iron stores, while concentrations of hemoglobin and other iron indicators were secondary outcomes. ResultsDaily consumption of mungbean dal along with guava did not result in an overall improvement of body iron stores (mean treatment effect: 0.65 mg/kg body weight; 95% CI: −0.34, 1.63; P=0.197). However, compared to children who consumed mungbean dal only, children in the guava group showed a larger increase in hemoglobin concentration (3.7 g/L; 95% CI: 1.6, 5.6; P=0.001), and a larger drop in the prevalence of anemia (−51%; 95% CIs: −74, −10; P= 0.022) and iron-deficiency anemia (−56%, 95% CI: −83, 13; P=0.087). These effects were more pronounced in children who were iron-deficient at study start. ConclusionsAddition of guava to a mungbean-based meal containing a moderate amount of iron increased hemoglobin and reduced anemia but did not provide enough additional absorbed iron to also increase body iron stores. Food-to-food fortification by inclusion of vitamin C rich fruits in iron-containing school meals may help alleviate the burden of anemia in children.This trial was registered at https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01191463.

Iron redox shuttling and uptake by silicate minerals on the Namibian mud belt

Anoxic marine sediments represent an important source of bioavailable iron (Fe) to the ocean. The highest sedimentary Fe fluxes are observed in open-marine oxygen minimum zones where anoxic bottom waters are in contact with ferruginous surface sediments. Here, sedimentary Fe release, transport and re-deposition (i.e., Fe shuttling) may generate a lateral pattern of sedimentary Fe enrichment and depletion, which can be used to trace redox-related Fe mobility in the paleo-record. However, depending on the balance between terrigenous and authigenic (i.e., shuttle-related) Fe flux, the stability of bottom water redox conditions as well as post-depositional processes of mineral alteration, the sedimentary fingerprint of an Fe redox shuttle may be obscured and difficult to identify.We investigated sedimentary Fe cycling along two transects across the Namibian mud belt with variable terrigenous sedimentation (23°S < 25°S) and during two seasons with opposing bottom water redox conditions (oxic in austral winter versus anoxic to sulfidic in austral summer). On both transects, substantial benthic Fe fluxes up to −50 µmol m−2 d−1 were inferred based on pore water profiles. The magnitude of these fluxes is comparable to those reported for other open-marine oxygen minimum zones. On the transect at 23°S, Fe source areas with ferruginous surface sediments were clearly separated from Fe sink areas with highly sulfidic surface sediments. Therefore, Fe redox shuttling was reflected by a lateral pattern of reactive Fe depletion and enrichment relative to the terrigenous background sedimentation. By contrast, on the transect at 25°S, benthic Fe fluxes were temporally and spatially more variable and surface sediments were ferruginous or only weakly sulfidic. Therefore, sedimentary Fe depletion and enrichment was less pronounced at 25°S. In the Fe sink area at 23°S, hydrogen sulfide was present at the sediment surface during both sampling campaigns and solid phase data suggest that Fe sulfide minerals represented the main burial phase of reactive Fe. By contrast, at 25°S excess Fe was associated with potassium (K) rather than reduced sulfur. While a differing sediment provenance cannot be ruled out entirely, combined evidence from pore water silica profiles, K to Fe stoichiometric relationships and electron microprobe images suggest that laterally derived excess Fe was incorporated into pre-existing and/or authigenic clay minerals during early diagenesis. Iron uptake by clay minerals may be supported by frequent redox oscillations and sediment mixing preventing preservation of Fe sulfide minerals and promoting Fe and K fixation in clay minerals. The burial fluxes of excess Fe associated with sulfide minerals at 23°S and silicate minerals at 25°S were similar. Our findings thus underscore that neoformation or alteration of silicate minerals can be important processes within the low-temperature marine Fe cycle.

Micronization of wholewheat flour increases iron bioavailability from hydrothermally processed wheat flour dough

Cereal products contribute significantly to dietary intake of essential minerals. In wheat, iron and zinc are stored in specific grain structures including the aleurone, scutellum and embryo. Wheat cell walls are resistant to digestion in the human gastrointestinal tract and therefore this study investigated the hypothesis that physical disruption of the cell walls would increase the bioaccessibility and bioavailability of iron and zinc from wheat-based foods. Flour was micronized using a combination of roller milling and a micro-mill and this reduced median particle size by two-thirds. Hydrothermally processed wheat flour doughs were subjected to in vitro digestion to determine mineral bioaccessibility. Mineral bioavailability from food digests was measured using human intestinal Caco-2 cells. Iron (but not zinc) bioavailability from wheat foods made using the micronized flour (2.5 ± 0.5 nmol/mg cell protein) was increased significantly compared with foods produced from standard milled flour (1.3 ± 0.1 nmol/mg cell protein; P = 0.031). Micronization of wheat flour has the potential to increase the absorption of the endogenous iron present in cereal foods and this might have health benefits for population groups with poor iron status.

Potential siderophore-dependent mutualism in the harmful dinoflagellate Alexandrium pacificum (Group IV) and bacterium Photobacterium sp. TY1-4 under iron-limited conditions

Specific bacterial species induce algal blooms by producing growth-promoting substances, such as siderophores, under iron-limited conditions. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying these effects remain poorly understood. This study investigates the interactions between the harmful dinoflagellate Alexandrium pacificum (Group IV) and siderophore-producing bacteria, with a focus on iron acquisition facilitated by bacterial siderophores. During algal bloom seasons in the South Sea of Korea, Photobacterium sp. TY1-4 was isolated, which enhances A. pacificum cell density under iron-deficient conditions, TY1-4 can use the sterile exudates from A. pacificum as the sole source of carbon, suggesting a mutualistic relationship. Transcriptomic and genomic analyses revealed siderophore-mediated redox-based signaling and non-reductive pathways enhancing iron bioavailability. Photobacterium sp. TY1-4 initiates siderophore production through quorum sensing, whereas A. pacificum utilizes specific receptors and transporters for hydroxamate-type siderophores (ApFHUA and ApFHUC) to uptake iron. Three redox key iron-uptake genes were also identified in A. pacificum: membrane-bound ferroxidase ApFET3, high-affinity iron permease ApFTR1, and ferric-chelate reductases/oxidoreductases ApFRE1, with transcription levels inversely related to bioavailable iron. Increased iron bioavailability mediated by siderophores alleviates iron stress in A. pacificum, supporting its growth in iron-scarce environments. Additionally, A. pacificum co-cultured with Photobacterium sp. TY1-4 synthesized high-toxicity STXs, including GTX4, GTX2, and STX. These findings highlight the critical role of bacterial siderophores in iron binding and their potential impact on harmful algal bloom dynamics.

In vitro toxicity assessment of bioavailable iron in coal varieties of Central India

Introduction Information on bioavailable Iron (BAI) content in respirable coal dust (RCD) is crucial to address occupational health and safety, especially in preventing coal workers’ pneumoconiosis (CWP). Materials and methods In the present study, we determined BAI concentrations in seventy-seven coal samples collected from ten coal mining regions of Central India. The cytotoxic potential of BAI-RCD was established invitro by using alveolar epithelial (A549) and macrophage (U937) cell lines. The oxidative/antioxidant status, inflammations, and genotoxicity attributed to BAI-RCD exposure were evaluated and correlated with CWP pathophysiology. Results The mean BAI concentrations in the coal samples (n = 77) range from (275 to 9065 mg kg-1) and showed wide variability. Both cell lines were exposed to low (275 mg kg-1), moderate (4650 mg kg-1), and high (9065 mg kg-1) BAI-RCD samples showed significant (p &lt; 0.001) cytotoxicity in a dose-dependent manner (low &lt; moderate &lt; high) compared to the control. After BAI-RCD treatment, both cell lines showed a decrease in antioxidant stress measures (SOD, CAT, and GSH) and a significant (p &lt; 0.001) increase in oxidative stress parameters (NADPH, MPO, LPO, and PC). Furthermore, these cell line models demonstrated a statistically significant (p &lt; 0.001) dose-dependent increase in cytokines (TGF-β1, IL-1β, TNF-α, MCP-1, and IL-6 cytokines) and oxidative DNA damage marker (8-OH-dG). Conclusion Results indicated that the central India coals (even at low BAI content) may be accountable for inflammatory responses and cytotoxicity. Hence, BAI can be important characteristic to establish safety standards for coal dust exposure before active mining.

Ferritin, inflammation, and iron deficiency in acute heart failure: evidence from the EDIFICA cohort

Abstract Background Ferritin is commonly used to evaluate iron stores and guide therapeutic decisions regarding intravenous iron supplementation. However, in the context of AHF, inflammation-driven upregulation of ferritin might disrupt its correlation with iron stores, restricting iron bioavailability and potentially amplifying the inflammatory response. Aim This study aims to assess the clinical and prognostic associations of ferritin levels in an AHF cohort and to determine whether the prognostic value of ferritin is influenced by the presence of infection, inflammatory activation, and other markers of iron deficiency. Methods The association between ferritin and clinical outcomes (180 days) in AHF was evaluated in a cohort of 526 patients from the EDIFICA registry. Results The median ferritin plasma concentration at admission was 180 pg/mL. Patients with higher ferritin levels at admission were predominantly men, exhibiting a high prevalence of chronic kidney disease and alcohol consumption, and presenting with lower blood pressure and a higher incidence of clinical infection. Higher ferritin levels were associated with increased risk of the composite of heart failure hospitalization or cardiovascular death (Tertile 2: HR 1.75; 95% CI 1.10–2.79; p = 0.017; Tertile 3: HR 1.79; 95% CI 1.08–2.97; p = 0.025), independently of classical HF prognostic factors, inflammatory and iron-related markers. No significant associations were found between admission serum iron or transferrin saturation tertiles, iron status categories, or guideline-defined iron deficiency (ID) criteria and the primary composite outcome. However, at discharge, patients who met the criteria for defective iron utilization, low iron storage, or guideline-defined ID had a lower risk of the composite endpoint compared to those with normal iron utilization or who did not meet the guideline-defined ID criteria, respectively. Conclusions Elevated ferritin levels are independently associated with poor prognosis in AHF. Low ferritin levels are associated with a favorable outcome and do not carry significant value in identifying ID in this population.

Development and characterization of lpa1 and lpa2-based low phytate double mutants in maize for enhancing the nutritional quality of food and feed

Phytic acid (PA), an anti-nutritional factor hampers the nutritional value of maize-based food by reducing the bioavailability of zinc and iron. Low phytate maize is key for addressing poor micronutrient bioavailability. Here, we developed low phytic acid double mutants (lpa1/lpa2) in maize by crossing lpa1 and lpa2-based near-isogenic lines (NILs) in seven genetic backgrounds. Genotypic selections for lpa1 and lpa2 genes in the F2 population revealed segregation ratios of 9:3:3:1 for double mutants and 3:1 for single mutants. Newly developed double mutants along with single mutants and wild types, were field-evaluated for two seasons. Wide genetic variation was observed for PA, inorganic phosphorus (Pi), grain yield, and agro-morphological traits, with negligible G×E interactions. PA concentration of lpa1/lpa2 (1.73 mg/g) was significantly (P <0.05) lower than wild types (2.92 mg/g), lpa1 (1.86 mg/g), and lpa2 (2.05 mg/g) lines. The double mutants revealed more prominent PA reduction (41 %) than single mutants, lpa1 (36 %) and lpa2 (30 %) compared to wild types. Additionally, the double mutants recorded comparable performance to wild types for grain yield and other agro-morphological traits. This study illustrated the potential of double mutants over lpa-based single mutants in lowering the anti-nutritional effects and enhancing the nutritional value of maize grains.

Bambara groundnut as a food, nutritional and income security crop in SubSaharan Africa

An over-reliance on the three major global food staples; maize, wheat, and rice, to continue feeding the world is a dangerous approach. Bambara groundnut originated in West-Africa, but was adopted in many African countries, and is produced almost exclusively by small-scale farmers. It has good levels of nutrients, particularly protein, carbohydrates and fat, as well as lysine, in such a balanced manner that it has been termed a “complete food”. The long duration of cooking (hard-to-cook) of bambara groundnut, and the low number of uses in food preparation (in contrast to groundnut) are also factors responsible for lower levels of production and utilization compared to other legumes. Bambara groundnuts have more than 20% protein and can be used as a meat supplement or replacer. It also has high levels of iron and zinc. Landraces with dark-coloured seeds such as red or black, generally contain higher levels of nutrients and minerals than the cream-white or plain-white coloured landraces. The iron content of red bambara seeds was found to be double that of cream-coloured seeds. Antinutrients such as phytic acid can reduce the bioavailability of iron and zinc, but dehulling of the seed can reduce antinutrients significantly. Bambara groundnut has significant potential as a food security crop, but concerted efforts should be made by governments to market the crop, and to develop products and new uses for the seed and the plant. Plant breeding efforts can improve yield and cooking quality. This paper presents progress on the industrial application for food and nutritional security and genetic improvement of bambara groundnut through breeding.

Components of Iron Deficiency Anemia: Understanding Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, and Management

Iron deficiency anemia (IDA) is a prevalent global health concern, marked by a significant reduction in iron levels, leading to diminished hemoglobin production and compromised oxygen transport. This condition disproportionately affects vulnerable populations, including women of reproductive age, infants, and individuals in low-resource settings, resulting in a multitude of health complications. The pathophysiology of IDA involves complex interactions between dietary iron intake, increased physiological demands, chronic blood loss, and malabsorption syndromes. Clinically, IDA manifests through symptoms such as fatigue, pallor, and cognitive impairments, necessitating a thorough diagnostic approach that includes complete blood counts, iron studies, and reticulocyte counts. Effective management strategies encompass dietary modifications, iron supplementation, and treatment of underlying causes. Furthermore, preventive measures—such as public health initiatives and food fortification—are crucial in addressing the root causes of IDA. Emerging research suggests innovative approaches, including bioavailable iron sources and genetic studies, to enhance prevention and treatment efforts. This review comprehensively examines the components of IDA, providing insights into its pathophysiology, diagnosis, management, and future directions for research and intervention. Keywords Iron deficiency anemia (IDA), Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, Management, Dietary iron.

Iron chelation capacity and prediction of peptide binding modes identified in California red worm hydrolysates and effects on iron bioavailability in differentiated Caco-2 cells

Metal-chelating peptides represent an alternative for overcoming iron deficiencies, a common nutritional disease affecting populations worldwide. This study explored the iron-chelating activity of California red worm hydrolysates (WH) and its fractions. WH was obtained by hydrolysis with Alcalase 2.4 L and fractionated using a ceramic membrane with molecular weight cutoff 3 kDa. Both the complete hydrolysate and its fractions were assessed for their in-vitro iron-chelating activity and their ability to improve iron bioavailability through ferritin formation by differentiated Caco-2 cells assay. Finally, peptides in the fraction with the highest activity were sequenced by LC-MS/MS analysis and molecular docking was performed to elucidate the chelation mechanism. The findings reveal that the smallest fraction (F < 3 kDa) exhibits the most potent iron-chelating activity with IC50 value like carnosine. Moreover, in intestinal-like differentiated Caco-2 cells, this fraction enhances iron bioavailability in a remarkable 77.9% in comparison to FeSO4 alone. On the other hand, the peptide SLLDDRLDEK identified in this fraction presents the lowest value of affinity energy (−1.5 kcal/mol) and exhibits specific interactions with iron, allowing iron ions to be trapped within its structure. These results underscore the potential of F < 3 kDa fractions from WH as promising candidates for increasing iron bioavailability and addressing iron deficiency and related health concerns.

Iron distribution and speciation in a 3D-printed hybrid food using synchrotron X-ray fluorescence and X-ray absorption spectroscopies

The bioavailability of iron from a food depends on its concentration and chemical form but also on dietary factors and nutrient interactions, which are affected by storage conditions and time. Here we investigated the time-course profile of iron in a hybrid 3D-printed food composed of alternating layers of liver and lentils after 0, 5, 7, 14 and 21 days of storage at 4 °C under oxygen or nitrogen packaging. Synchrotron X-ray fluorescence highlighted major variations in iron distribution in both the animal and plant parts of the food as a function of storage conditions. FeP and FeS positive spatial correlations pointed to iron-associated compounds. X-ray absorption near-edge structure spectroscopy showed spectral signatures specific to the animal and plant mixtures, and then highlighted interactions between animal and plant parts during food storage, with a change in iron forms in the plant part.

Role of Low Amount of Iron Intake from Groundwater for Prevention of Anemia in Children: A Cross-Sectional Study in Rural Bangladesh.

In Bangladesh, groundwater, the principal source of drinking water, contains predominantly high levels of iron. Drinking groundwater is associated with good iron status in populations. Against this backdrop, iron supplementation is often associated with side effects, which reduces its intake compliance. However, the level of iron in groundwater is not consistent, and low levels exist in many areas of the country. In the present study, we examined the role of groundwater with a low concentration of iron in the prevention of anemia in Bangladeshi children. In 2018, a cross-sectional study was conducted in Bangladesh among children aged 2-5 years (n = 122) who drank groundwater containing a low level of iron (0-<2 mg/L). The combined intake of iron was calculated from the key sources-diet, groundwater, and the simulated intake of MNPs. The intakes of iron were compared against the standard reference intake. The children's hemoglobin levels were measured using a photometer. The combined intake of iron from diet, groundwater with low levels of iron, and the simulated consumption of low-iron MNP in children was 5.8 ± 2.0 and 6.9 ± 2.5 mg/day, comprising 193% and 169% of the Estimated Average Requirements in the 2-3-year-old and 4-5-year-old subgroups, respectively. The combined intake of bioavailable iron from dietary and low-iron groundwater was 0.42 ± 0.023 and 0.22 ± 0.019 mg/day in children exposed to groundwater concentrations of 0.8-<2.0 mg/L and 0.0-<0.8 mg/L, respectively (p < 0.001). The mean concentration of hemoglobin in the respective groups was 12.17 ± 0.94 g/dL and 11.91 ± 0.91 g/dL (p = 0.30). The combined intake of iron from diet and the low-iron groundwater was associated with maintenance of hemoglobin concentration at the non-anemic level in > 90% of the children. The findings highlight the protective influence of the low concentration of iron in the drinking groundwater against childhood anemia in Bangladesh.

An Electrolytic Elemental Iron Powder Effectively Regenerates Hemoglobin in Anemic Rats and Is Relatively Well Absorbed When Compared to Ferrous Sulfate Monohydrate.

Elemental iron powders are used as food fortificants to reduce the incidence of iron deficiency anemia. However, many commercially available iron powders are relatively untested in vivo. The purpose of this study was to determine the hemoglobin regeneration efficiency (HRE) and relative iron bioavailability (RBV) of an electrolytic elemental iron powder (EIP), by treating anemic rats with 14 d iron repletion diets fortified with four different concentrations (12, 24, 36, or 48 mg iron/kg diet) of EIP and bakery-grade ferrous sulfate monohydrate (FS; FeSO4•H2O), or no added iron (control); n = 9-12/group. The HRE of FS was significantly higher (p ≤ 0.05) than EIP at each concentration of dietary iron tested. For EIP, the HREs (ratios) of diets containing 12, 24, 36, and 48 mg iron/kg were 0.356, 0.205, 0.197, and 0.163, respectively. For both EIP and FS, HRE was inversely associated with increasing dietary iron. The RBVs (%) of iron from EIP in diets at 12, 24, 36, and 48 mg iron/kg as compared to FS were 64.5, 59.1, 50.6, and 54.3%, respectively. Overall, findings show that at the concentrations of iron tested, EIP has RBVs greater than 50% and is an effective fortification agent to replenish hemoglobin and correct iron deficiency anemia.

Nutritional and phytochemical profile of a traditional beverage made from roasted roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa) seeds

The consumption of locally available and affordable food with high nutritional properties is a recommended solution to prevalent undernutrition in low-income countries. The objective of this study was to investigate the nutritional and phytochemical profile of a traditional beverage made from roasted green or red roselle seeds. Proximate composition was determined using AOAC standard methods. Minerals and phytochemicals were quantified by atomic and molecular absorption spectrophotometry, respectively. The bioavailability of iron, zinc, and calcium was estimated using phytates/mineral molar ratios. A sensory analysis was conducted to evaluate the acceptability of the studied beverages, and their contribution to the Recommended Daily Intake of proteins, energy, iron, zinc, and calcium was also assessed. The beverage made from roasted green roselle seeds presented the highest content of proteins, fats, total fibres and energy, while the beverage made from roasted red roselle seeds was more concentrated in carbohydrates. Both beverages had similar contents of total phenols, oxalates, ascorbic acid but exhibited different phytates and carotenoids contents that were higher in the beverage made from roasted red roselle seeds. The mineral composition revealed higher contents of sodium, potassium, magnesium, phosphorus, zinc, and copper in the beverage made from roasted red roselle seeds, while iron and manganese were more concentrated in the beverage made from roasted green roselle seeds. A good bioavailability was observed for iron and zinc in the beverage made from roasted red roselle and green roselle seeds, respectively. An unfavourable calcium bioavailability was exhibited by both beverages. The consumption of 500 mL of the studied beverages, which were positively appreciated by the sensory test panel, could cover more than 100% of the Recommended Daily Intake of proteins, energy, zinc, and more than 50% of that of iron, for children up to 3 years old. The consumption of beverages made from roasted roselle seeds could be an efficient and affordable solution to undernutrition in low-income countries.