Bimolecular Photoinduced Electron Transfer Reactions Research Articles

Elucidating the Mechanism of Bimolecular Photoinduced Electron Transfer Reactions.

The current developments in photoredox chemistry are stimulating a renewed interest for bimolecular photoinduced electron transfer reactions. Their investigation, initiated in the 1960s using conventional photochemical tools, resulted in a relatively simple reaction scheme. More recent studies, using not only spectroscopic techniques with better time resolution and extended spectral/temporal windows but also molecular dynamics simulations, reveal a more complex picture. This Perspective focuses on the results of these latest studies with neutral organic reactants, highlighting the time dependence of the quenching rate, the effect of mutual orientation of the reactants on the electronic coupling, and their consequence on the nature of the reaction product. Remaining questions, such as the occurrence of distant electron transfer in nonviscous liquids are also addressed, and possible directions toward their answer are proposed.

Lanthanide (III) ions as multichannel acceptors for bimolecular photoinduced electron transfer reactions with coumarin dyes

Understanding the kinetics and energetics of photoinduced electron transfer (PET) reactions is of considerable research interest in photochemical sciences. In this study, interactions between trivalent lanthanide ions (Ln(III)) as electron acceptors and coumarin dyes as electron donors have been investigated in aqueous media using ground state absorption, steady-state (SS) emission, time-resolved (TR) fluorescence and laser flash photolysis (LFP) techniques. Among different Ln(III) ions, only Eu(III), Yb(III) and Sm(III) are found to display substantial interaction with the excited singlet (S1) state of the coumarin dyes, which correspond well with the favorable free energy changes (negative ΔG0) associated with the PET reactions in these coumarin-Ln(III) systems. For other Ln(III) ions, as ΔG0 is not favorable, they do not show any interaction with the excited coumarin dyes. Among the interacting coumarin-Ln(III) systems, bimolecular quenching rate constant (kq) increases consistently with the increasing exergonicity (−ΔG0), when each of the Ln(III) ions are considered independently, except for Eu(III), for which the kq values have already reached the diffusion controlled limit. However, considering all the Ln(III) ions together, the kq values do not show any common correlation with the changing ΔG0 values. The kq values are in general much lower for Yb(III) quencher as compared to Sm(III), even though the exergonicity values for coumarin-Yb(III) systems are more favorable than the coumarin-Sm(III) systems. Correlating the observed results based on the diffusion mediated bimolecular reaction model, we infer that depending on the ΔG0 values, some Ln(III) quenchers possibly also engage their upper electronic energy states as well to assist multichannel ET with the excited coumarin donors, and thereby modulating the kq values very substantially for different coumarin-Ln(III) systems. Apparently, the involvement of multichannel ET causes the total reorganization energy (λ) for ET reactions to differ largely for different Ln(III) ions, which would otherwise be very similar for all the coumarin-Ln(III) pairs. Observed results suggest that the intramolecular reorganization energy (λi) associated with lower electronic states of the hydrated Ln(III) ions is much larger than that associated with higher electronic states of these ions. While the involvement of multichannel ET is itself an intriguing inference, modulation in the ET kinetics and total λ values for different Ln(III) quenchers through the differential participation of the multichannel PET is also expected to find potential uses in the controlled utilization of such PET reactions in many practical areas.

Bimolecular photoinduced electron transfer between 7-methylbenzo[a]pyrene and aromatic amine donors in stationary and static regimes

Determination of primary/intrinsic electron transfer rate (ket = 1/τet, s−1) in bimolecular photoinduced electron transfer reactions (PET) in solution phase monitoring fluorescence quenching is a controversial issue, predominantly due to constraint imposed by diffusion, and measurement of rate of formation of transient intermediates, therefore primary electron transfer rate, was suggested (J. Phys. Chem. B 2015, 119, 11253 − 11261). Herein, we report electron transfer dynamic of excited 7-methylbenzo[a]pyrene (MBP) in acetonitrile (ACN) in presence of different aromatic amine donors from very low concentration to finally in neat donors to access intrinsic, diffusion free, rate constants of bimolecular PET by using steady state and femtosecond time resolved fluorescence and femtosecond transient absorption (fsTA) spectroscopy. It appears that in lower concentration of donors, diffusion control or stationary regime of ET, observed dynamics by time resolved fluorescence as well as transient absorption spectroscopy replicate to each other leading to determine the bimolecular quenching rates (kd, M−1 s−1) instead of primary or intrinsic ET rates. In very higher donor concentration or in neat donors, non-diffusive or intrinsic regime of ET, amalgamation of femtosecond time-resolved emission and fsTA studies along with global and target analysis determines the primary/intrinsic ET rates (ket) between excited MBP and studied donors which are one to two orders of magnitude larger than corresponding bimolecular quenching rate constants (kd) in ACN. Intrinsic electron transfer occurs with very high rate of ket (∼1011 s−1) and the process lies in Marcus normal region and back electron transfer occur very slow kbet (∼108 s−1), the process lies in Marcus inverted region.

Effect of Ionic Liquids as Cosurfactants on Photoinduced Electron Transfer in Tetronic Micelles.

This study investigates the role of varying alkyl chain lengths of a series of surface-active 1-alkyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate ([C nMIm][BF4], n = 4, 6, and 10) ionic liquids (ILs) as cosurfactants in modifying the micellar characteristics of a tetronic star-block copolymer, T1304, and the consequent effects on bimolecular photoinduced electron transfer (PET) reactions carried out in these T1304-IL mixed micellar systems. Using coumarin 153 as the probe dye and following ground-state absorption, steady-state fluorescence, and time-resolved emission measurements, the micropolarity, microviscosity, and solvent relaxation dynamics in the micellar palisade layer have been revealed both in pure T1304 and in T1304-IL systems. With increasing alkyl chain length of the ILs, the palisade layer of the micelles gradually becomes more polar and less viscous, suggesting better incorporation of the longer alkyl chain length ILs as cosurfactants into the T1304 micelles. The bimolecular PET reactions, involving 7-aminocoumarins as acceptors and N, N-dimethylaniline as the donor, are considerably modulated in T1304 micelles by the presence of the ILs, the effect being more prominent for ILs with longer alkyl chain lengths. In all of the micellar systems, correlations of the electron transfer (ET) kinetics with the reaction exergonicity (-Δ G0) show clear Marcus inversion (MI) behavior where onsets of MI invariably appear at significantly lower exergonicities, suggesting the involvement of a two-dimensional ET mechanism. Interestingly, the Marcus correlations display significant variations, namely, enhanced reaction rates and gradual shift in the onset of MI toward higher exergonicity, as longer alkyl chain length ILs are sequentially introduced as cosurfactants. From the observed results, it is convincingly realized that 1-alkyl-3-methylimidazolium-based ILs can be used satisfactorily as cosurfactants in tetronic star-block copolymer solutions to modulate PET reactions very significantly for their better utilizations in suitable applied areas.

Dynamics of Radical Ion Pairs following Photoinduced Electron Transfer in Solvents with Low and Intermediate Polarities.

Fluorescence quenching of p-xylene, naphthalene, or pyrene by fumaronitrile in apolar solvents and in solvents of intermediate polarities leads to weakly fluorescent radical ion pairs. This emission is assigned to ion pairs in close contact on the basis of their solvent polarity dependence, kinetics, and thermodynamics. The temperature-dependence of the intensity and fluorescence emission maxima of ion pairs in methyl acetate reveals that they have decay channels competitive with their thermal equilibration. The results presented in this work are consistent with the direct formation of contact ion pairs in weakly polar solvents and in solvents of intermediate polarities as the result of bimolecular photoinduced electron transfer reactions between aromatic hydrocarbons and nitriles. The implications of these findings in free-energy relationships of electron transfer reactions are discussed.

Excitation Wavelength Dependence of the Dynamics of Bimolecular Photoinduced Electron Transfer Reactions.

The dynamics of photoinduced electron transfer between polar acceptors and donors has been investigated in apolar solvents using femtosecond-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy. It was found to be ultrafast and to continuously accelerate by varying the excitation wavelength from the maximum to the red edge of the absorption band of the acceptor, the overall difference being as large as a factor 4-5. This violation of the Kasha-Vavilov rule is explained by a correlation between the composition of the acceptor environment and its transition energy, that is, the more donors around an acceptor, the longer its absorption wavelength, and the faster the quenching. Because of preferential solvation, this dependence is already observed at low quencher concentrations. This effect, which requires quenching to be faster than the fluctuations of the environment composition, should be quite general for photoinduced charge transfer processes in low-polarity, viscous, or rigid media, such as those used in organic optoelectronic devices.

Bimolecular Photoinduced Electron Transfer Beyond the Diffusion Limit: The Rehm–Weller Experiment Revisited with Femtosecond Time Resolution

To access the intrinsic, diffusion free, rate constant of bimolecular photoinduced electron transfer reactions, fluorescence quenching experiments have been performed with 14 donor/acceptor pairs, covering a driving-force range going from 0.6 to 2.4 eV, using steady-state and femtosecond time-resolved emission, and applying a diffusion-reaction model that accounts for the static and transient stages of the quenching for the analysis. The intrinsic electron transfer rate constants are up to 2 orders of magnitude larger than the diffusion rate constant in acetonitrile. Above ∼1.5 eV, a slight decrease of the rate constant is observed, pointing to a much weaker Marcus inverted region than those reported for other types of electron transfer reactions, such as charge recombination. Despite this, the driving force dependence can be rationalized in terms of Marcus theory.

Bimolecular photoinduced electron transfer reactions in liquids under the gaze of ultrafast spectroscopy.

Because of their key role in many areas of science and technology, bimolecular photoinduced electron transfer reactions have been intensively studied over the past five decades. Despite this, several important questions, such as the absence of the Marcus inverted region or the structure of the primary reaction product, have only recently been solved while others still remain unanswered. Ultrafast spectroscopy has proven to be extremely powerful to monitor the entire electron transfer process and to access, with the help of state-of-the-art theoretical models of diffusion-assisted reactions, crucial information like e.g. the intrinsic charge separation dynamics beyond the diffusion limit. Additionally, extension of these experimental techniques to other spectral regions than the UV-visible, such as the infrared, has given a totally new insight into the nature, the structure and the dynamics of the key reaction intermediates, like exciplexes and ions pairs. In this perspective, we highlight these recent progresses and discuss several aspects that still need to be addressed before a thorough understanding of these processes can be attained.

Investigations of bimolecular photoinduced electron transfer reactions in polar solvents using ultrafast spectroscopy

Several controversial questions in the field of bimolecular photoinduced electron transfer reactions in polar solvents are first briefly reviewed. Results obtained in our group using ultrafast spectroscopy and giving a new insight into these problems will then be described. They concern the driving force dependence of the charge separation distance, the formation of the reaction product in an electronic excited state, the absence of normal region for weakly exergonic charge recombination processes and the excitation wavelength dependence of the CR dynamics of donor–acceptor complexes.

Free ion yields in photoinduced electron transfer reactions from transient photoconductivity measurements: an overview

The transient photoconductivity (TP) technique for the determination of free ion yields in bimolecular photoinduced electron transfer reactions is critically discussed. Variation of experimental parameters such as the number of charge carriers, the applied electric field, the electrode spacing, and the viscosity of the solvent confirm the theoretical predictions.

Magnetic Field Effect: A Tool for Identification of Spin State in a Photoinduced Electron-Transfer Reaction

The present work addresses the investigation of the influence of substitution on the initial spin state in photoinduced electron-transfer (PET) reactions with a series of four exciplex systems i.e., N-ethylcarbazole (ECZ)−1,4-dicyanobenzene (DCB), 1,4,5,8,9-pentamethylcarbazole (PMC)−DCB, ECZ−1,2,4,5-tetracyanobenzene (TCNB), and PMC−TCNB by means of a low magnetic field (MF) (0.05 T). The two primary intermediates that play major roles in determining the efficiencies of bimolecular PET reactions are the contact ion pair (CIP), i.e., (A-D+), and the solvent-separated ion pair (SSIP) (A-(S)D•+). The effect of MF of the order of hyperfine interaction present in the system on such reactions reflects the unique combination of spin dynamics, diffusion dynamics, and geminate recombination in the SSIPs. Thus MF can be successfully used to investigate the initial spin state of a SSIP where electronic coupling between acceptor (A) and donor (D) molecules is small indeed. The experimental techniques have used eithe...