Big Hill Research Articles

Evaluating Exploitation of White Crappie and Black Crappie in Three Southeast Kansas Reservoirs

White Crappie (Pomoxis annularis) and Black Crappie (P. nigromaculatus) were studied in three southeast Kansas reservoirs to assess exploitation and determine if current regulations were conducive for sustainable populations. Trap nets were used to sample crappie in Elk City Reservoir, Big Hill Reservoir, and Parsons City Lake. Crappie measuring 210 mm and greater received Floy FD-94 tags that served as entries for rewards to encourage tag reporting. Harvest and angler demographic information were collected when tags were reported. Postcard surveys and motion-sensed cameras were used in conjunction to estimate angler effort and reporting rate on Parsons City Lake. Annual exploitation rates (i.e., percent of fish harvested) determined by tag returns and corrected for nonreporting and tag loss were 28.3%, 21.8%, and 3.9% on Elk City Reservoir, Big Hill Reservoir, and Parsons City Lake, respectively. Overfishing was not occurring, so current statewide regulations were likely appropriate, and no changes may be necessary.

Must Have Been A Lie

Must Have Been A Lie

Quality of Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) Due to Grafting in Solanaceae of Different Species

The present work had as objective to evaluate the physical-chemical characteristics of commercial tomato fruits grafted on different solanaceous species. The experiment was conducted in a greenhouse, in a randomized complete block design, with four blocks and six treatments, being the rootstocks: cocona (Solanum sessiliflorum); two cultivars of eggplant (Solanum aethiopicum), Long Light Green and Big Hill; jurubebão (Solanum lycocarpum) and jurubeba juna (Solanum stramonifolium), grafted with the tomato cultivar Santa Cruz Kada, and the control treatment was represented by the self-grafted tomato. Three consecutive harvests were spaced seven days after the production stabilization, and the characteristics fruits analyzed were Total Soluble Solids (ºBrix), pH, Titratable Acidity (percentage of citric acid) and TSS/TA. A statistically significant difference was found in the Tukey’s test at 5% probability in the titratable acidity, pH and fruit pulp flavor, among the evaluated treatments, while the soluble solids content did not differ between treatments in any of the harvests, but the values remained within the considered adequate for the tomato in natura in the current literature. There was a decrease in fruit flavor in all treatments, and fruit pH drop in all treatments with the exception of jurubebão, with the advancement of plant age, while the titratable acidity had an inverse behavior. The evaluated rootstocks can be used in the tomato crop, without prejudice to the quality of the tomato fruit produced.

A common arthropod from the Late Ordovician Big Hill Lagerst\xe4tte (Michigan) reveals an unexpected ecological diversity within Chasmataspidida

BackgroundChasmataspidids are a rare group of chelicerate arthropods known from 12 species assigned to ten genera, with a geologic range extending from the Ordovician to the Devonian. The Late Ordovician (Richmondian) fauna of the Big Hill Lagerstätte includes a new species of chasmataspidid represented by 55 specimens. This taxon is only the second chasmataspidid described from the Ordovician and preserves morphological details unknown from any of the previously described species.ResultsThe new chasmataspidid species is described as Hoplitaspis hiawathai gen. et sp. nov.. Comparison with all other known chasmataspidids indicates that Hoplitaspis occupies an intermediate morphological position between the Ordovician Chasmataspis and the Silurian-Devonian diploaspidids. While the modification of appendage VI into a broad swimming paddle allies Hoplitaspis to the Diploaspididae, the paddle lacks the anterior ‘podomere 7a’ found in other diploaspidids and shows evidence of having been derived from a Chasmataspis-like chelate appendage. Other details, such as the large body size and degree of expression of the first tergite, show clear affinities with Chasmataspis, providing strong support for chasmataspidid monophyly.ConclusionsThe large body size and well-developed appendage armature of Hoplitaspis reveals that chasmataspidids occupied a greater breadth of ecological roles than previously thought, with the abundance of available specimens indicating that Hoplitaspis was an important component of the local community. The miniaturization and ecological limiting of diploaspidids potentially coincides with the major radiation of eurypterids and may suggest some degree of competition between the two groups. The geographic distribution of chasmataspidid species suggests the group may have originated in Laurentia and migrated to the paleocontinents of Baltica and Siberia as tectonic processes drew the paleocontinents into close proximity.

New Ordovician marine macroalgae from North America, with observations onButhograptus,Callithamnopsis, andChaetocladus

AbstractOrdovician material from the Platteville Formation (Sandbian) of southern Wisconsin and Big Hill Formation (Katian) of northern Michigan is described that provides novel information about the phylogenetic affinity, taxonomic diversity, and stratigraphic range of the nonbiomineralized taxaButhograptus,Callithamnopsis, andChaetocladus. Two new species ofButhograptus, a previously monotypic genus, are erected on the basis of the Platteville Formation material,Buthograptus gundersonin. sp. andB.meyerin. sp., and new occurrences ofB.laxusare recorded from several localities and two distinct stratigraphic levels within this unit. On the basis of scanning electron microscopic investigation of the material and the fact that each of the threeButhograptusspecies has a close counterpart in the frond morphology of an extant species ofCaulerpa,Buthograptusis interpreted as a member of the green algal order Bryopsidales. New specimens from the Platteville Formation assigned toCallithamnopsisreveal new morphological details for the type species,C.fruticosa(Hall, 1865), aspects of which indicate that the genus belongs to the family Triploporellaceae rather than Seletonellaceae within the green algal order Dasycladales, andChaetocladusmaterial from the Big Hill Formation includes specimens that are formally assigned toChaetocladus dubius(Spencer, 1884), a species of dasycladalean alga known previously only from the mid-Silurian of Ontario.

MASALAH PEMENUHAN KEBUTUHAN AIR BERSIH TIGA DESA DI KABUPATEN ENDE

Clean water supply is still a very difficult problem for small villages, especially in County Ende, NTT. Three villages, ie Detukeli, Ndetundora I and Ndetundora II, are the examples. The real problem is the settlement living in the area which do not have enough potential of water resources.There are some potential surface water resources, but they are located more than 3 km from the village settlement. One of the potential rivers is so separated by a big hill, that the people have to walk for a long distance to reach the clean water resource. To solve the problem, it is very important to develop a transmition piping, including the distribution net and a hidram water pumping system. To construct a complete water supply system needs a lot of investation. For only Village Detukeli as an example, it needs approximately almost 2 thousand million rupiahs. Kata Kunci : Clean water supply, limited potential of water resources

Construction of hexahedral finite element mesh capturing realistic geometries of a petroleum reserve

The three-dimensional finite element mesh capturing realistic geometries of the Bayou Choctaw site has been constructed using the sonar and seismic survey data obtained from the field. The mesh consists of hexahedral elements because the salt constitutive model is coded using hexahedral elements. Various ideas and techniques to construct finite element mesh capturing artificially and naturally formed geometries are provided. The techniques to reduce the number of elements as much as possible to save on computer run time while maintaining the computational accuracy is also introduced. The steps and methodologies could be applied to construct the meshes of Big Hill, Bryan Mound, and West Hackberry strategic petroleum reserve sites. The methodology could be applied to the complicated shape masses for various civil and geological structures.

A new Lagerstätte from the Late Ordovician Big Hill Formation, Upper Peninsula, Michigan

A new exceptionally preserved marginal marine biota is reported from the Late Ordovician Big Hill Formation of Stonington Peninsula in Michigan's Upper Peninsula. The new Lagerstätte hosts a moderately diverse fauna of medusae, linguloid brachiopods, non-mineralized arthropods and orthocone nautiloids, alongside dasycladalean green algae. The biota is similar to those of Lagerstätten from the Late Ordovician of Canada, revealing an extensive distribution of a distinctive marginal marine palaeocommunity in Laurentia at this time. The Big Hill biota extends the geographical range of exceptionally preserved Late Ordovician faunas in Laurentia and indicates that further examples remain to be discovered.

Altruistic Metadynamics: Multisystem Biased Simulation.

We present a new simple extension of multiple walker metadynamics which makes it possible to simulate simultaneously multiple different molecular systems and to predict their free energy surfaces, named Altruistic metadynamics. Similarly to basic metadynamics, it uses a bias potential in the form of hills summed over the simulation. Each system adds a big hill to its "own" bias potential and smaller hills to bias potentials of other systems, hence, each system enhances sampling of other systems. This makes it possible to achieve either faster reaching of the stationary point or higher accuracy of the calculated free energy surfaces. This should be efficient in modeling of series of chemically similar systems, for example, in computational drug screening by metadynamics. The method was tested on model energy surfaces, alanine dipeptide modeled in different force fields and monosaccharides of D-hexopyranose series.

Gas breakdown mechanism in pulse-modulated asymmetric ratio frequency dielectric barrier discharges

The gas breakdown mechanisms, especially the roles of metastable species in atmospheric pressure pulse-modulated ratio frequency barrier discharges with co-axial cylindrical electrodes, were studied numerically using a one dimensional self-consistent fluid model. Simulation results showed that in low duty cycle cases, the electrons generated from the channels associated with metastable species played a more important role in initializing next breakdown than the direct ionization of helium atoms of electronic grounded states by electron-impact. In order to quantitatively evaluate the contribution to the discharge by the metastables, we defined a “characteristic time” and examined how the value varied with the gap distance and the electrode asymmetry. The results indicated that the lifetime of the metastable species (including He*and He2*) was much longer than that of the pulse-on period and as effective sources of producing electrons they lasted over a period up to millisecond. When the ratio of the outer radius to the inner radius of the cylindrical electrodes was far bigger than one, it was found that the metastables distributed mainly in a cylindrical region around the inner electrode. When the ratio decreased as the inner electrode moved outward, the density of metastables in the discharge region near the outer electrode became gradually noticeable. As the discharging gap continued to decrease, the two hill-shaped distributions gradually merged to one big hill. When the discharge spacing was fixed, asymmetric electrodes facilitated the discharge.

Interbed Modeling to Predict Wellbore Damage for Big Hill Strategic Petroleum Reserve

Oil leaks were found in wellbores of Caverns 105 and 109 at the Big Hill Strategic Petroleum Reserve site. According to the field observations, two instances of casing damage occurred at the depth of the interbed between the caprock bottom and salt top. A three-dimensional finite element model, which allows each cavern to be configured individually, was constructed to investigate horizontal and vertical displacements in each well as it crosses the various interbeds. The model contains interfaces between each lithology and a shear zone (fault) to examine the interbed behavior in a realistic manner. This analysis results indicate that the casings of Caverns 105 and 109 failed, respectively, from shear stress that exceeded the casing shear strength due to the horizontal movement of the salt top relative to the caprock and tensile stress due to the downward movement of the salt top from the caprock. The wellbores of Caverns 114 and 104, located at the far end of the field and near the fault, respectively, are predicted to fail by shear stress in the near future. The wellbores of inmost Caverns 107 and 108 are predicted to fail by tensile stress in the near future. The salt top subsides because the volumes of caverns in the salt dome decrease with time due to salt creep closure, while the caprock does not subside at the same rate as the salt top because the caprock is thick and stiff. This discrepancy yields deformation of the well.

Zinc oxide production through reprocessing of the electric arc furnace flue dusts

The smelting of slag in view producing copper and cobalt alloys achieved at the “Big Hill Smelter in Lubumbashi” (DRC) generates Electric Arc Furnace flue dusts as by-product. These EAF dusts are highly toxic wastes since they consist essentially of low-grade zinc oxide powders wherein one finds lead (9.11%) as the major impurity. That is why, they are looked at as hazardous wastes that must be either stored in specialized landfills or reused as secondary raw materials. This research aims at producing zinc oxide through reprocessing of the EAF flue dusts. The treatment suggested is based on three operations: leaching (290mg/L H2SO4, 130min) of the EAF flue dusts in view dissolution of zinc (99.42%), precipitation of zinc (90%) at pH 7.5 with sodium hydroxide and calcination (300°C, 15min) to produce zinc oxide (93.39%). The recovery of zinc oxide from these hazardous wastes is a cost-saving method for their sound management and disposal. It is though that this practice could contribute to the conservation of resources and the environment safeguard.

The Jewish Community of Brynmawr, Wales

At one time or another, there have been about 30 Jewish communities in Wales, most of them in South Wales. Broadly, they were located in two geographical lines: those along the coast, from Newport in the east to Llanelli in the west; and those from Brynmawr in the east to Ystalyfera in the west. Brynmawr (in what was then the county of Breconshire) was the most northerly of the southern communities as well as the highest town in Wales (its name in Welsh means ‘big hill’). There were three separate Jewish communities very near Brynmawr: at Ebbw Vale, Tredegar, and Abertillery; they were to have close relationships with that of Brynmawr. In other nearby places, there were small numbers of Jews — in Blaina and Beaufort, for example — which did not constitute formal congregations but who were associated with Brynmawr’s Jewish activities.

Destruction of coastal ecosystems

A study of coastal areas from Fraser Island in Queensland to the Coorong in South Australia indicates that the Australian ethic does not include conservation of natural vegetation types nor of landscape beauty. The destructive developments are urban subdivisions down to the high water mark (HWM), clearing of mangroves and the filling in of saltmarshes for extra industrial areas, sand mining, logging, clear felling and canal estate. Roads are built parallel to the sea, eve on the second frontal dune. Houses are placed on and around headlands, a beautiful view for the residents but all the visitor sees is the back of houses. A series of private jetties from houses with absolute waterfrontage provide an obstacle race for the public who wish to walk around the beach at low tide. Rock walls built to prevent damage to houses on the foredunes leave little beach to sit upon and assist in further erosion of the beach sand. Victoria has been the least affected state because there is a rim of public land about HWM, the tourist pressure is not so great and the establishment of the Land Conservation Council by the Government. The journey through Victoria by coast road from Aireys Inlet past Lorne to Cape Patton is unique as it is a magnificent series of forested hills forming promontories. The vegetation commences immediately above HWM – spinifex, club rush, herbs to tea-tree and then to a shrubland rish in flowers in the spring. As the hills ascend, the eucalyptus appear and over the rise there is open forest. Much of the hillside is rock to the HWM and the vegetation is undisturbed. The beauty is being marred by houses on a patch of private land on top of the most prominent hill, Big Hill, and along the rim at Pt. Stuart.

The terracotta army.

It was 10.10 pm when I entered the British Museum with my booking paper printed from the internet. I got my right to see the Terracotta Army at 10.20, my scheduled time, visits to the army are contingent on booking, booking is overwhelming, the museum is open until midnight on Thursdays and Fridays. Just entering the British Museum at this time, with darkness outside and the big entrance and hall near empty, is fascinating. But seeing the exhibition is spectacular, you travel back to a time when human civilization was at its top level only in Egypt with the Pharaohs, in Greece, in Italy with the Etruscans and the Romans. Three hundred years B.C. … and you enter the mysterious atmosphere where the eyes of warriors, officials, generals, dignitaries, civil managers, musicians, craftsmen, horses and birds look at you in silence, the silence of their more than 2000 years of life in the underground and afterlife in defence of and serving their Emperor. He, Ying Zheng, was born in 259 B.C. and at the age of 13 became King of Qin – one of the seven main states competing for the might and at war with each other. Under his leadership Qin conquered the other states using highly developed weapons, technology and military strategy. After completing his campaign, the King of Qin declared himself Qin Shihuangdi: First Devine Emperor of the Qin. To govern his empire, the First Emperor introduced reforms and enforced strict laws. He planned to join the walls of conquered states to create a great common wall, and built new roads and canals. Standard weights and measures, a single currency and a universal writing system (very similar to the one used nowadays) allowed him to govern more easily. He built more than 270 palaces in his capital city Xianyang, as a display of power and to house the rulers of the states he conquered. The Emperor wanted to govern forever, feared death (as do we and our patients), desperately tried many potions to prolong his life, and sent his ministers on quests seeking an elixir of immortality, visiting Zhifu Island. He sent a Zhifu islander, Xu Fu, with ships carrying hundreds of young men and women in search of Mount Penglai, where the Eight Immortals lived. These people never returned, as they knew that if they did so without the promised elixir they would surely be executed. Legends claim that they settled down on one of the Japanese islands, a view that many Chinese and Japanese people are familiar with today. Even though we shall probably never see him, Ying Zhen has already achieved a sort of immortality – not just for himself but for thousands of his anonymous citizens too. Looking at their faces, standing in the last room of the exposition, I could imagine how they were even though I never knew them. Once we have seen them, we take an impression of them away with us in our heads and remember their exhausting, punishing lives building Ying Zhen's empire. However, death claimed him before he could find success on that matter and the same happens to patients whether they are rich or poor. He spent more than 30 years building his tomb complex, a palace where he could rule forever in the afterlife. At the centre of the complex (I read it twice at the panel … unbelievable … 56 square kilometres!) there was his tomb. In 1974 a farmer digging found a terracotta head. He had discovered a pit of terracotta warriors. Around 7000 terracotta soldiers have now been found buried in three pits outside the tomb, standing guard with their imposing height of between 185 and 194 centimetres, taller than that of the real population. This is now one of the world's most important archaeological sites, London hosted part of this incredible treasure of human history, warriors continue to guard the Emperor, musicians do their work and birds sing to their Emperor in the afterlife. The First August Divine Emperor died suddenly at the age of 49 … but he is still alive and rules in his 56 square kilometre tomb complex, a real big hill, computer images render only a faint idea of the inner complex of paths and corridors and other paths for different guardians and servants and warriors and horses and carriages … and other corridors … and probably rivers of mercury. Nobody knows what treasures it contains, with the most sophisticated technological methods it will not be possible to know without creating ruins for the next generations. So rest peacefully, Qin Shihuangdi, rule quietly in your afterlife, continue to govern forever …. the terracotta army will guard you safely

Observations of the diurnal and seasonal trends in nitrogen oxides in the western Sierra Nevada

Abstract. Observations of speciated nitrogen oxides, namely NO2, total peroxy nitrates (ΣPNs), total alkyl nitrates (ΣANs), and HNO3 by thermal dissociation laser induced fluorescence (TD-LIF), and supporting chemical and meteorological measurements at Big Hill (1860 m), a high elevation site in California's Sierra Nevada Mountains, are described. From May through October, terrain-driven winds in the region routinely bring air from Sacramento, 100 km southwest of the site, upslope over oak and pine forests to Big Hill during the day, while at night, the site often samples clean, dry air characteristic of the free troposphere. Winter differs mainly in that the meteorology does not favour the buildup of Sacramento's pollution over the Sierra Nevada range, and the urban-influenced air that is seen has been less affected by biogenic VOC emissions, resulting in longer lifetime for NO2 and a predominance of the inorganic forms of nitrogen oxides. Summertime observations at Big Hill can be compared with those from Granite Bay, a Sacramento suburb, and from the University of California's Blodgett Forest Research Station to examine the evolution of nitrogen oxides and ozone within the urban plume. Nitrogen oxide radicals (NO and NO2), which dominate total nitrogen oxides (NOy) at Granite Bay, are rapidly converted into HNO3, ΣPNs, and ΣANs, such that these compounds contribute 29, 30, and 21% respectively to the NOy budget in the plume at Big Hill. Nevertheless, the decreasing concentrations of NO2 as the plume is advected to Big Hill lead to decreases in the production rate of HNO3 and ozone. The data also demonstrate the role that temperature plays in sequestering NO2 into peroxy nitrates, effectively decreasing the rate of ozone production. The important contribution of ΣANs to NOy in the region suggests that they should be considered with regards to export of NOy from the boundary layer. Nocturnal observations of airmasses characteristic of the free troposphere showed lower NOy concentrations, which were dominated by HNO3 with a relatively small contribution from the organic nitrates.

Effect ofCryptomycina pteridisonPteridium aquilinum

Pteridium aquilinum, noninfected and nat- urally infected with Cryptomycina pteridis, was studied in western South Dakota from 1990-1992. Time of frond emergence in 1990 and 1991 was not signifi- cantly different between fronds in noninfected plots and fronds in infected plots. Initial P aquilinum pop- ulations in noninfected plots were significantly high- er than populations in infected plots (P = 0.01), but the fungus did not significantly reduce populations in infected plots during the study. Frequency of in- fected fronds increased in infected plots. In infected plots mean heights of noninfected fronds were not significantly different from infected fronds except in 1990 and 1992 (P = 0.05) at the Big Hill plot where potassium levels were limiting. Biomass from nonin- fected and infected plots, and biomass from nonin- fected and infected fronds in infected plots were not significantly different. Stipes of infected fronds were significantly thicker than stipes of noninfected fronds (P = 0.0001). Infected fronds were brittle. Brittle frond texture and fungal stromatal development were strongly correlated (r = 0.9295-0.9701). The fungus grew in and between mesophyll cells of pinnules and formed subepidermal stromata in substomatal cavities. The fungus was commonly found in the cortex of the stipe, rachises, and costae, and in vascular bundles of rhizomes. Cells not in- fected or adjacent to infected cells appeared normal. Macroconidia inoculated to transplanted bracken plants were not infective, but after ascospores were inoculated to fronds small necrotic lesions formed from which stromata and macroconidia developed. Infections remained localized and the systemic na- ture of naturally-infected bracken did not develop. Cryptomycina pteridis is compatible with its host and could be considered an endophyte of bracken. The fungus would not be an effective biocontrol agent for bracken.

Effect of Cryptomycina pteridis on Pteridium aquilinum

Pteridium aquilinum, noninfected and naturally infected with Cryptomycina pteridis, was studied in western South Dakota from 1990–1992. Time of frond emergence in 1990 and 1991 was not significantly different between fronds in noninfected plots and fronds in infected plots. Initial P. aquilinum populations in noninfected plots were significantly higher than populations in infected plots (P = 0.01), but the fungus did not significantly reduce populations in infected plots during the study. Frequency of infected fronds increased in infected plots. In infected plots mean heights of noninfected fronds were not significantly different from infected fronds except in 1990 and 1992 (P = 0.05) at the Big Hill plot where potassium levels were limiting. Biomass from noninfected and infected plots, and biomass from noninfected and infected fronds in infected plots were not significantly different. Stipes of infected fronds were significantly thicker than stipes of noninfected fronds (P = 0.0001). Infected fronds were brittle. Brittle frond texture and fungal stromatal development were strongly correlated (r = 0.9295-0.9701).The fungus grew in and between mesophyll cells of pinnules and formed subepidermal stremata in substomatal cavities. The fungus was commonly found in the cortex of the stipe, rachises, and costae, and in vascular bundles of rhizomes. Cells not infected or adjacent to infected cells appeared normal.Macroconidia inoculated to transplanted bracken plants were not infective, but after ascospores were inoculated to fronds small necrotic lesions formed from which stromata and macroconidia developed. Infections remained localized and the systemic nature of naturally-infected bracken did not develop. Cryptomycina pteridis is compatible with its host and could be considered an endophyte of bracken. The fungus would not be an effective biocontrol agent for bracken.

Land subsidence along the northeastern Texas Gulf coast: Effects of deep hydrocarbon production

The Texas Gulf of Mexico coast is experiencing high (5–11 mm/yr) rates of relative sea level (RSL) rise that are the sum of subsidence and eustatic sea level (ESL) rise. Even higher rates are associated with areas of groundwater pumping from confined aquifers. We investigate the possibility of deep petroleum production as a cause for the high regional rates of subsidence. The northeast Texas coast was chosen for the study because it has a high rate of RSL rise, very limited groundwater production, and a long history of petroleum production. We examine in detail the Big Hill and Fannett fields, for which adequate bottom hole pressure (BHP) and well log data are available. The hypothesis of deep petroleum production is tested in three ways. First, industry BHP tests show many of the fields are depressurized to far below hydrostatic pressures. Second, analysis of BHP data over time in the Big Hill and Fannett fields indicates that some Zones in these fields were below hydrostatic when production commenced. This indicates that depressurization from production in neighboring fields or zones within the same field is not limited to the production zone. Third, three models for subsidence (a general 1-D regional model, an intrareservoir model, and a reservoir bounding layer model), using reasonable hydrogeological parameters, predict subsidence within the inferred range of data. The latter two models use data from the Big Hill and Fannett fields. Additional verification of the hypothesis that deep petroleum production is causing or accelerating regional subsidence will require the collection and analysis of data on the subsurface hydrogeological parameters and detailed measurements of the spatial and temporal distribution of subsidence along the Texas Coast.

Genre, Methodology and Feminist Practice

The rainy season is not quite over although it has nearly spent itself. I drive leisurely along five miles of roller coaster highway, down and up, up and down again as I drink in the grandeur of the sunset. I come to the 'big hill', around and over which the road twines narrowly. From its summit I see at my left a deep purple canyon, green at the bottom with irrigated fields. At my right the sun is setting across a wide valley, the shadows replaced by roseate gold interrupted by the white resplendence of chalk cliffs. As if this were not sufficient, a light female rain like that which falls constantly over the home of the Corn gods, drops between me and the sun. I gasp in my inability to comprehend the sight fully as I turn my head forty-five degrees to behold a complete rainbow and behind it the thinnest slice of a new moon. (Gladys Reichard, 1934:122)