Bias In Research Research Articles

Testosterone mediates life-history trade-offs in female mammals.

Hormones mediate life-history trade-offs. In female mammals, such trade-offs have been studied predominantly in the contexts of oestrogen, progesterone and prolactin. We evaluate the hypothesis that prenatal and postnatal testosterone levels structure and regulate trade-offs in females involving components of reproduction and survival. This hypothesis is predicated on the observation that testosterone confers competition-related and survival-related benefits, but also reproduction-related costs, to female mammals. The hypothesis is supported by field and laboratory data from diverse non-human animals, and data from healthy women. Most broadly, relatively low testosterone level in females has been associated with earlier, faster and higher offspring production, greater attractiveness to males, and reduced dominance or competitiveness, whereas higher testosterone level is associated with delayed and reduced reproduction but increased dominance, status, aggression, and resource accrual. The magnitude of testosterone-mediated trade-offs is expected to depend upon the strength of female-female competition, which represents some function of species-specific ecology, behaviour and mating system. Testosterone-associated trade-offs have, until now, been virtually ignored in studies of female life history, reproductive physiology, evolutionary endocrinology, and female-limited disease, probably due to researcher biases towards conceptualizing androgens as hormones with effects mainly restricted to males.

EPCO-45. COMPLETE CHROMOSOME-SCALE DIPLOID-PHASED ASSEMBLY OF A NORMAL HUMAN ASTROCYTE CELL LINE

Abstract Genomic studies of the malignant brain tumor glioma invariably rely on aligning sequencing reads to a reference genome such as HG38, even though no single reference can capture the diversity of an individual patient or cell line. To begin addressing these biases in genomics research, we sought to construct a chromosome-scale diploid-phased assembly of a normal human astrocyte (NHA) cell line that is frequently used as a basis for developing isogenic glioma cell models. To achieve this, we generated 45x Pacific Biosciences HiFi data (N50: 16kb), 26x Oxford Nanopore Technologies ultra-long data (N50: 80kb), and 2 billion paired-end reads of Hi-C data. The assembler verkko2 was used to integrate these data and build a phased diploid assembly. We achieved an assembly size of 6.01 Gbp, with 17 gapless chromosomes. The two haplotypes contain 214 and 182 contigs, respectively. Our assembly includes 76 fully assembled telomeres and 20 fully assembled centromeres. The contiguity of our assembly is 130 Mbp, which vastly exceeds that of HG38 (N50: 68 Mbp) and approaches that of the recent telomere-to-telomere CHM13 assembly (N50: 155 Mbp). We ran BUSCO on each haplotype of the assembly using the metazoa database to quantify the single-copy genes that are expected to be present in every animal genome. The haplotypes of our assembly contain the complete sequence of 98.6% and 99.9% of these genes respectively. Finally, we used Merqury to perform a k-mer based evaluation of the two haplotypes and found quality values of 59.09 and 59.75 respectively. This diploid genome assembly of NHA will serve as a resource for researchers that wish to develop NHA-derived glioma models. It can be used to call indels or structural variants in a haplotype-specific manner which will further elucidate genotypes underlying glioma phenotypes. Most importantly, it sets the stage for personalized genome assembly and tackling the lack of diversity in genomic studies of glioma to date.

Exploring the role of primary care pharmacists in NHS Lanarkshire following the implementation of the pharmacotherapy hub: a service evaluation

Abstract Introduction The General Medical Service (GMS) contract was produced in Scotland in an attempt to tackle General Practitioner (GP) workforce issues. The pharmacotherapy work stream is part of this and provides a framework for pharmacy teams, dividing services into level 1 (core), level 2 (advanced) and level 3 (specialist).1 A statement by the Royal Pharmaceutical Society (RPS) and the British Medical Association (BMA) discussed the introduction of pharmacotherapy hubs to complete level 1 work for multiple practices, centralising the medicines reconciliation process. Theoretically, this would release pharmacists to carry out clinical and more advanced/specialist services.2 There are currently 8 pharmacotherapy hubs within NHS Lanarkshire (NHSL), incorporating level 2 and 3 services into job plans for General Practice Clinical Pharmacists (GPCPs). No work has been undertaken to explore changes in practice since the implementation of these hubs. The qualitative study explored drivers and motivators for pharmacists in practice, shaping future pharmacotherapy services in NHSL and Scotland. Aim To explore the views and attitudes of primary care pharmacists towards their practice role in NHSL following the implementation of the pharmacotherapy hub. Methods Ethical approval was granted from the School of Pharmacy and Life Sciences Ethics Committee (Robert Gordon University). Pharmacists working within the 8 hub localities were invited to participate via email correspondence if they had over 6 months experience in practice pre-hub implementation and then 6 months post-hub implementation. Participants attended a one-to-one interview to share their views towards their practice role since the hub was implemented. Interviews were recorded, transcribed verbatim and thematically analysed. Results Twelve pharmacists across six localities participated. The five key themes identified were job role, managing time, professional development, professional belonging and patient care. The implementation of the hub was an enabler for pharmacists to partake in advanced pharmacotherapy tasks. Pharmacists negatively perceived level 1 core pharmacotherapy tasks in comparison to level 3 clinical patient-facing time. Participants linked the hubs impact on practice with role development, an increase in autonomy, confidence and job satisfaction. Discussion/Conclusion The hub has enabled in-practice pharmacists to move to a more sustainable balance between core and advanced/specialist tasks. Collaboration is required between pharmacy teams and practices to understand the pharmacist role in pharmacotherapy. Further recommendations include continuing the roll-out of pharmacotherapy hubs, standardisation of pharmacist clinical time balanced with core tasks and implementation of protected learning time for pharmacy teams. The study was open to response bias but this was addressed by using semi-structure interview guides in the one-to-one interviews. Researcher bias was minimised by two researchers analysing the data and practicing reflexivity. The study was open to recall bias due to participant’s retrospective thinking. In NHSL prioritising the hub roll-out and collaboration with stakeholders are essential. This will ensure the balance between efficient pharmacotherapy services and maintaining attractive roles, contributing to a sustainable workforce.

Non-Participation in a Digital Health Intervention Study Among Older Adults: Uneven Involvement, Biased Outcomes and the Effect of Weighting.

The involvement of older adults in research on digital health is uneven with respect to e.g. age, gender, health status, and digital skills. However, little is known regarding the impact of the uneven involvement of older adults in digital health research on researched outcomes. This study helps to fill this knowledge gap and identifies the effects of uneven involvement of older adults in digital health research on researched outcomes, and also develops a correction for this. Data are retrieved from a digital health intervention for postoperative monitoring of people who underwent day surgery in Sweden. Based on field information on the recruitment process and researched outcomes for the intervention, this study (1) tested intervention effects by using two standard unweighted procedures in a sample of 281 individuals aged 50 years or older, and then (2) used the information on participants, non-participants and their respective probabilities to be involved in the intervention study to perform a weighting of the intervention effects for each step of selection and for the study group membership. The intervention effects were found to be overestimated due to overrepresentation of groups which gained from receiving the intervention. No intervention effects were found after adjustment for participation bias. Selective participation of older adults in digital health research biases research outcomes and can lead to overestimation of intervention effects. Weighting allows researchers to correct and describe the impact of selective participation on researched outcomes.

Cybersecurity and International Relations: developing thinking tools for digital world politics

Abstract Processes of digital transformation alter global politics. This is an issue not only for specialists in cybersecurity, but for all scholars of international relations. This introduction to a special section outlines an agenda for cybersecurity research in international relations research and practice. We argue that cybersecurity is not only a specialized subfield of International Relations (IR), but also an intellectual space in which crucial questions concerning international politics, security and digital technology can be examined. Nevertheless, we identify three biases in current cybersecurity research—a focus toward the state, the military and power as domination—that limit the field and hamper broader engagement with IR and critical security scholarship. We argue that cybersecurity and digital technology are neither optional additions to the theory and practice of international relations nor issues that can neatly be isolated from other world affairs. The goal of the special section is hence twofold. First, to provide new directions and foundations for cybersecurity studies. Second, to explore the opportunities and challenges raised by cybersecurity and digital technological phenomena in conversation with IR and critical security studies. Taken together, the special section demonstrates the need to understand cybersecurity through international relations and to understand international relations through cybersecurity.

China–US scientific collaboration on sustainable development amidst geopolitical tensions

This study aims to investigate whether growing geopolitical competition has affected international collaboration in sustainable development research, with a particular focus on structural changes in bilateral research collaboration between China and the United States. Three datasets have been created and compared using bibliographic information provided by the Web of Science core collection: before the Trump administration, during the Trump administration, and during the Biden administration. The results indicate that countries worldwide have conducted extensive research in sustainable development, and the United States, China, and the United Kingdom have produced the most publications, demonstrating a high level of scientific research productivity. Concerning the collaborative patterns of sustainable development research, China and the United States are each other’s largest collaborative partners. The intensity of scientific research collaboration between the two countries has not declined due to geopolitical tensions. Conversely, the intensity of scientific research between the two countries is still increasing. The keyword thematic explorations reveal that research on China–US collaboration has focused differently across the three time periods and that despite differences in research bias, efforts to contribute to advancing the achievement of the SDGs have been consistent. It is possible that geopolitical considerations have heightened the urgency of policy research and led to its incorporation into research centers.

Investigating Sampling Bias in Seismological Research Through Secondary Variable: Insights from VS30 Datasets of Mainland China, Japan, Türkiye, and Taiwan

Abstract Sampling bias is an inevitable issue in seismological research, especially in collecting seismic site condition data due to operational constraints. It impacts data representativeness and subsequent model performance. Previous researches give insufficient consideration to this issue. Some researches worked on raw data directly. Some others used conventional declustering methods that rely on data spatial distribution and proved to be ineffective. This study investigates sampling bias in seismological research by employing a debiasing method that incorporates secondary variables, focusing on VS30 datasets from mainland China, Japan, Türkiye, and Taiwan. Quantifying analysis showed that, when considering topographic slope as the secondary variable, the sampling biases in the mainland China and Taiwan dataset are more pronounced. When examining the secondary variable of geology age, the sampling biases in the Japan and Türkiye datasets that are not readily discernible through visual inspection of spatial distributions become apparent. By investigating the sampling bias of the Türkiye and mainland China dataset using semivariogram as the secondary variable, this study reveals hidden bias within the Türkiye dataset, despite its well-distributed appearance. This finding further illustrates the limitations of relying solely on spatial distribution to detect sampling bias. In addition, the study examined the impact of sampling bias on resulting models. The topographic slope-based VS30 proxy models of debiased data in the four regions demonstrate significant effects of debiasing on modeling outcomes. Notably, the debiased models exhibit a homogenized trend comparing to original models in the low topographic slope range, indicating the possibility of a globally consistent relationship.

Outcomes after Traumatic Brain Injury with and Without Computed Tomography.

Our recent improved understanding of traumatic brain injury (TBI) comes largely from cohort studies of TBI patients with indication for computed tomography (CT). Using CT head as an inclusion criterion may overestimate poor outcomes after TBI with Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) 13-15. We aimed to compare outcomes after TBI in adults who had a head CT scan (with negative findings) versus those who had no CT when presenting to an emergency department. This was a secondary analysis of a trial that recruited adults with GCS = 13-15 after TBI in Vancouver, Canada. We included 493 participants (18-69 years, 54% female), after removing n = 19 with traumatic abnormalities on CT (intracranial and/or skull fracture). Outcomes were Glasgow Outcome Scale Extended (GOSE), Rivermead Post-Concussion Symptoms Questionnaire (RPQ), Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ)-9, and generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)-7 at 6 months post-injury. Over half (55%) of participants received a CT. At 6 months, 55% of participants with CT and 49% without CT had functional limitations on GOSE; 32% with CT and 33% without CT reported severe post-concussion symptoms (RPQ ≥16); 26% (with CT) and 28% (without CT) screened positive for depression (PHQ-9 ≥ 10), and 25% (with CT) and 28% (without CT) screened positive for anxiety (GAD-7 ≥ 8). In regression adjusted for personal variables, participants with CT had somewhat higher odds of worse functioning (ordinal GOSE; 1.4, 95% CI 1.0-2.0) but similar odds of severe post-concussion symptoms (1.1, 95% CI: 0.7-1.7), and depression (1.1, 95% CI: 0.7-1.7) and anxiety (1.0, 95% CI: 0.6-1.5) symptoms. Adults with and without head CT have mostly comparable outcomes from TBI with GCS = 13-15. Requiring CT by clinical indication for study entry may not create problematic selection bias for outcome research.

Excess mortality in individuals with and without COVID-19 vaccination in the Netherlands in 2021

Abstract Background The COVID-19 pandemic greatly affected public health, evident in higher mortality rates in 2020-2022. COVID-19 vaccinations reduced global mortality, though this may vary across subpopulations. We aimed to study the role of COVID-19 vaccination in excess mortality by examining individuals with and without COVID-19 vaccine while accounting for characteristics such as income and frailty. Methods In this observational study, electronic health record data from general practitioners participating in the Nivel Primary Care Database were linked to demographic data and COVID-19 vaccination data. Patients were categorized in age groups, based on vaccination invitation dates, with the index date set as vaccination date for vaccinated individuals and the expected vaccination date for nonvaccinated ones. Expected mortality rates were calculated using 2015-2018 data, accounting for season, sex, income, migration background, palliative care, and frailty. We compared expected mortality to observed mortality in 2021 to determine excess mortality. Results Preliminary results show that nonvaccinated individuals (n = 160.253) were younger, and less frail, but more often received palliative care than vaccinated individuals (n = 819.363). In nonvaccinated individuals, excess mortality in the three months after expected vaccination ranged from 22-61% for 36-60 year olds to 209-233% for the 81+ year olds. In vaccinated individuals, excess mortality ranged from -64- -61% in 36-60 year olds to 2-4% in 81+ year olds. When not correcting for palliative care, excess mortality estimations increased significantly in nonvaccinated individuals (e.g. for 81+ year olds: 504%-514%). Conclusions Excess mortality was hardly present in vaccinated subgroups, while it was high in all nonvaccinated subgroups. Our study shed light on characteristics of nonvaccinated individuals, who require special attention during future vaccination programs to prevent excess mortality. Key messages • Excess mortality in the three months after (expected) COVID-19 vaccination was high among nonvaccinated individuals and hardly observed amongst vaccinated individuals. • Routine care data could help identify terminally ill individuals, who are overrepresented amongst nonvaccinated individuals, and mitigate the so called healthy vaccinee bias in vaccination research.

Informant characteristics influence Clinical Dementia Rating Sum of Boxes scores-based staging of Alzheimer's disease.

The Clinical Dementia Rating Sum of Boxes (CDR-SB) is a staging scale for Alzheimer's disease (AD)1 and is commonly used as an outcome in clinical trials2. It relies on information provided by the patient and an informant3. The CDR-SB should reflect only the patient's disease severity. However, we explored whether informant characteristics were associated with CDR-SB scores because that association might introduce bias in Alzheimer's disease research. We found that the CDR-SB was 0.20 higher when informants were female, 0.39 higher when the informant was a patient's child and 0.18 lower if the relationship was other than spouse or children. Regarding the frequency of contact, CDR-SB scores were 0.38 higher when contact was at least once a week, 0.65 higher when daily and 0.57 higher when living with the patient. Our analysis results suggest that informant characteristics can modify the CDR-SB scores and might introduce bias into Alzheimer's disease trials and research.

Artificial Intelligence and Linguistic Landscape research

Abstract This article explores applications of artificial intelligence (AI) technologies in Linguistic Landscape research. Traditionally, LL research has relied on manual data collection and analysis, often involving photographs of public signage, advertisements, and other visual language displays. However, this manual approach can present challenges, including time-consuming data collection, inconsistent data quality, and potential researcher bias. Two AI technologies in particular hold promise for addressing these challenges in LL research: computer vision (CV) and large language models (LLMs). CV automates the identification and extraction of text from images, improving data accuracy and enabling large-scale image analysis. LLMs, based on natural language processing, can detect, translate, and interpret multilingual text. This article explores the affordances and challenges of using AI technologies in LL research and discusses methods to improve data collection, enhance accuracy, and support the analysis of multilingual environments. It also raises ethical issues and limitations of the technologies.

Risk of Bias in Liver Imaging Reporting and Data System Studies Using QUADAS-2.

Purpose: Use a tailored version of the Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Accuracy Studies tool to evaluate risk of bias and applicability across LIRADS related publications. Method: A tailored QUADAS-2 tool was created through consensus approach to assess risk of bias and applicability across 37 LI-RADS related publications. Studies were selected from 2017 to 2022 using the assistance of experienced hospital librarians to search for studies evaluating the diagnostic accuracy of CT, MRI, or contrast-enhanced ultrasound for HCC using LI-RADS through multiple different databases. QUADAS-2 assessments were performed in duplicate and independently by 2 authors with experience using the QUADAS-2 tool. Disagreements were resolved with a third expert reviewer. Consensus QUADAS-2 assessments were tabulated for each domain. Results: Using the tailored QUADAS-2 tool, 31 of the 37 included LI-RADS studies were assessed as high risk of bias, and 9 out of 37 studies demonstrated concerns for applicability. Patient selection (21 out of 37 studies) and flow/timing (24 out of 37 studies) domains demonstrated the highest risk of bias. 6 out of 37 studies in the index domain demonstrated high risk of bias. 2 out of 37 studies showed high risk of bias in the reference standard domain. Conclusion: A significant proportion of LI-RADS research is at risk of bias with concerns for applicability. Identifying risk of bias in such research is essential to recognize limitations of a study that may affect the validity of the results. Areas for improvement in LI-RADS research include reducing selection bias, avoiding inappropriate exclusions, and decreasing verification bias.

LGBT employees in state agencies and their creation of psychological meaningfulness

The purpose of this qualitative descriptive study was to explore how LGBT employees in state government agencies described how they created their own meaningfulness in the workplace in the US. The theoretical foundation for this study was the Employee Engagement theory by Kahn [Acad Manag J 33(4):692–724, 1990]. Purposive sampling was used to identify 43 questionnaires and 15 semi-structured interviews. Data were then coded and thematically analyzed to answer the research question. Findings revealed LGBT state employees created their psychological meaningfulness by ensuring that they make an impact or difference at work, and by connecting with other people or colleagues. Limitations include the research method and bias. Future research is recommended to explore how other groups within the LGBT community create their psychological meaningfulness.

Hidden influence? Unmasking conflicts of interest from randomized clinical trials on spinal cord stimulation for chronic pain

BackgroundRandomized clinical trials (RCTs) are considered the gold standard for evaluating the efficacy of healthcare interventions. However, conflicts of interest (COIs) can compromise the scientific integrity in these trials. This...

Fire in Feces: Bats Reliably Record Fire History in Their Guano

AbstractNew approaches are needed to resolve persistent geographic gaps and biases in paleofire research. Most sedimentary paleofire research relies on lake and peat sediments. We present an unconventional sedimentary charcoal record preserved in a modern, post‐bomb bat guano deposit and compare its accumulation to historical fire data. We find strong correlations between charcoal accumulation rates (CHAR) and non‐winter prescribed burns. CHAR in bat guano is more strongly correlated with prescribed fire than wildfire or total area burned, likely due to bats seeking out areas burned by prescribed fire for better foraging opportunities and/or bats avoiding wildfire. We attribute the CHAR in guano being a better recorder of area burned during non‐winter months to winter bat hibernation. Our analyses show that charcoal preserved in bat guano is a reliable paleofire proxy system, which has important implications for the paleofire field and encourages future research using bat guano as a viable archive.

Assessing phylogenetic diversity metrics in terrestrial ecological restoration: global trends and gaps

Phylogenetic diversity (PD) metrics estimate community diversity through evolutionary relationships, yet their potential in restoration ecology remains underutilized. This study reviews the literature on ecological restoration of terrestrial vegetation to evaluate the use of PD metrics, focusing on their application, global trends, and existing research gaps. Most studies were conducted in the United States, China, and Brazil, primarily in temperate broadleaf mixed forests (36.36%) and tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests (33.33%). Half of the papers were based on observational studies of restorations, and the other half were experimental studies. Plant PD was the primary focus in 90.09% of papers, with grasses and trees being the most studied life forms. Standardized effect size of the mean pairwise distance and mean nearest taxonomic distance metrics were the most commonly used metrics. The majority of studies used PD as a response variable and restoration indicators (e.g. age, initial seed/seedling mixture, and restoration impact) as explanatory variables. Research bias toward grassland and limited studies in Africa and Oceania were noted. Future studies should broaden geographic coverage in restoration to provide a more comprehensive understanding of PD dynamics globally. Also, efforts should be made to expand the taxonomic scope beyond to capture the full spectrum of biodiversity in restoration assessments.

Running out of empty space: environmental lidar and the crowded ancient landscape of Campeche, Mexico

As airborne lidar surveys reveal a growing sample of urbanised tropical landscapes, questions linger about the sampling bias of such research leading to inflated estimates of urban extent and population magnitude. ‘Found’ datasets from remote sensing conducted for non-archaeological purposes and thus not subject to archaeological site bias, provide an opportunity to address these concerns through pseudorandom sampling. Here, the authors present their analysis of an environmental lidar dataset from Campeche, Mexico, which reveals previously unrecorded urbanism and dense regional-scale settlement. Both characteristics, the authors argue, are therefore demonstrably ubiquitous across the central Maya Lowlands.

ZIP Code and ZIP Code Tabulation Area Linkage: Implications for Bias in Epidemiologic Research.

To our knowledge, no agreed-upon best practices exist for joining U.S. Census ZIP Code Tabulation Areas (ZCTAs) and U.S. Postal Service ZIP Codes (ZIPs). One-to-one linkage using 5-digit ZCTA identifiers excludes ZIPs without direct matches. "Crosswalk" linkage may match a ZCTA to multiple ZIPs, avoiding losses. We compared non-crosswalk and crosswalk linkages nationally and for mortality and health insurance in California. To elucidate selection implications, generalized additive models related sociodemographics to whether ZCTAs contained non-matching ZIPs. Nationwide, 15% of ZCTAs had non-matching ZIPs, i.e., ZIPs dropped under non-crosswalk linkage. ZCTAs with non-matching ZIPs were positively associated with metropolitan core location, lower socioeconomics, and non-white population. In California, 34% of ZIPs in the mortality and 25% in the health insurance data had ZCTAs with non-matching ZIPs; however, these ZIPs constitute only 0.03% of total mortality and 0.44% of total insurance enrollees. Our study findings support the use of crosswalk linkages and ZCTAs as a unit of analysis. One-to-one linkage may cause bias by differentially excluding ZIPs with more disadvantaged populations, although affected population sizes appear small.

A Method for Conveying Confidence in iNaturalist Observations: A Case Study Using Non-Native Marine Species.

Concerns and limitations relating to data quality, reliability and accuracy hamper the use of citizen science initiatives in research and conservation. Valued for their cost-effective and large data acquisition potential, citizen science platforms such as iNaturalist have been highlighted as beneficial tools to supplement monitoring using traditional data sources. However, intrinsic uncertainties in unverified observations stem from the nature of species being identified, the quality of uploaded media and georeferencing; these factors can limit the value of the data as they can result in inaccurate records. Verification of data prior to use is critical. This process can, however, be laborious and time-consuming, with bias associated with the individual responsible for the task. To address this challenge this study developed a protocol for assigning confidence in iNaturalist observations, using marine alien and cryptogenic species observations from South Africa as a case study. A positive relationship was found between the accuracy of observations and confidence score. The inherent data quality assessment in iNaturalist, termed quality grade, was found to be an inadequate proxy for accuracy. The results of this study highlight the importance of the expert verification phase when using citizen science data. The confidence score facilitates a streamlined approach to the verification process by reducing the time taken to validate records, while assessing the three levels of uncertainty within observations and reducing researcher bias. It is recommended that this confidence score be used as an essential tool when using citizen science derived data.

The internalization of religious moderation values in aqidah and akhlaq courses at the Faculty of Tarbiyah and Teacher Training (FTIK) of IAIN Kerinci

The diversity of Indonesian society is reflected in the variety of ethnicities, religions, races, and social groups spread across the archipelago. Religious moderation is recognized as a key approach to addressing issues of radicalism and extremism. This study aims to gain a comprehensive understanding of the process of incorporating religious moderation values into the curriculum for students in the Islamic Education Management Department at IAIN Kerinci, Jambi Province. The research employs a descriptive qualitative approach, with data collected through observation, interviews, and documentation. The validity of the data was ensured through internal validity measures, including data triangulation, member checking, repeated observations at the research site, peer debriefing, involvement of informants in various stages of the research, and researcher bias clarification. The results reveal that the teaching style of lecturers at the Faculty of Tarbiyah and Teacher Training (FTIK) of IAIN Kerinci plays a crucial role in shaping students to become moderate, tolerant, and peace-loving individuals. Lecturers employ interactive and participatory teaching approaches, integrating religious moderation values into the curriculum using various instructional methods. Factors contributing to the internalization of these values among students include participation in extracurricular activities and campus organizations that promote interfaith dialogue, as well as involvement in social service activities with communities of different religious backgrounds.