Bifactor Exploratory Structural Equation Modeling Research Articles

The Effort-Reward Imbalance Questionnaire for Teachers: Psychometric Properties Using the Bifactor ESEM Framework

This study is aimed at validating the French version of the Effort-Reward Imbalance Questionnaire for Teachers. The instrument was pretested before being administered in a large-scale study with elementary school teachers. Dimensionality of the instrument was examined using the bifactor exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) framework. The bifactor ESEM model showed the best fitting indices and parameters. Importantly, results suggested the existence of a continuum for ERI data concerning elementary teachers. The instrument showed concurrent validity with several measures of mental health, job satisfaction and work-life balance.

The study demands and resources scale: psychometric properties, longitudinal invariance, and criterion validity

The Study Demands and Resources Scale (SDRS) has shown promise as a valid and reliable measure for measuring students’ specific study demands and -resources. However, there is no evidence as to its psychometric properties outside of the original context in which it was developed. This study aimed to assess the psychometric properties of the SDRS in a cross-national student population through examining its longitudinal factorial validity, internal consistency, and temporal invariance as well as criterion validity through its association with study engagement and task performance over time. Results showed that a Bifactor Exploratory Structural Equation Model (ESEM) with one general factor (overall study characteristics) and five specific factors (workload, growth opportunities, lecturer support, peer support, information availability) fitted the data, showed strong measurement invariance over time, and was reliable at different time points. The study further established criterion validity for the overall study characteristics factor through its concurrent and predictive associations with study engagement and task performance. However, the specific factors’ concurrent and predictive capacity could only partially be established when controlling for the general study characteristics factor. These findings suggest that study characteristics should be measured as a dynamic interaction between study demands and resources, rather than a hierarchical model.

Disordered gambling, or dependence and consequences: a bifactor exploratory structural equation model analysis of the problem gambling severity index

Background The Problem Gambling Severity Index (PGSI) is a widely used assessment of disordered gambling. However, it has been claimed that instead of measuring a single factor of problem gambling severity, the PGSI measures two correlated factors of behavioral dependence and harms/consequences. The existing literature using exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis has notable limitations that mean these accounts cannot be discriminated. Method Secondary data from 13 nationally representative surveys of gamblers in the UK (n = 42,422) between 2007 and 2023 were used to examine five different approaches to specifying one- and two-factor models of the PGSI. Results Overall, the findings supported a single construct account. Fit indices provided slight support for a two-factor model. However, the composition and loadings of these factors did not replicate in the disaggregated datasets and demonstrated poor model-based reliability. The best-fitting model was a bifactor ESEM model with a general gambling severity factor and a group-specific factor subsuming additional covariance between the first three or four items. Conclusions This study provides support for a unitary gambling severity construct and the use of total PGSI scores. The second factor observed elsewhere appears to consist of residual covariances between the first 3-4 PGSI items or a methods factor that can be explained by item framing (e.g. items that ask about gambling behavior).

Conceptualization and measurement of foreign language playfulness via exploratory structural equation modeling

The current research sought to conceptualize and measure foreign language playfulness (FLP), a recently developed construct in second language acquisition (SLA), through exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM), a recently introduced scale measurement approach. Using a sample of 208 Iranian undergraduate language learners, we employed a series of statistical techniques to examine the underlying structure, best fitting model, psychometric properties, measurement invariance, and factor correlation of a new measure of FLP. Findings showed that bifactor EFA, compared with EFA, provided better representation for the underlying structure of the FLPS. Multiple model comparisons indicated that the bifactor ESEM model had a more satisfying representation of the FLPS than the other models (CFA, bifactor CFA, and ESEM). Cronbach's α and omega (ω) demonstrated that the FLPS is a reliable instrument. The bifactor ESEM model of the FLPS was also invariant across genders. Finally, factor correlation in ESEM exhibited a more accurate reflection of the association between the two factors (intellectual playfulness and other-directed playfulness) of the FLPS. The results were discussed by highlighting the importance of using ESEM to validate psychological constructs in SLA.

A Persian Validation of the Occupational Depression Inventory

Abstract: The present study examined the psychometric and structural properties of the Persian version of the Occupational Depression Inventory (ODI). The ODI focuses on depressive symptoms that employed individuals specifically ascribe to their work. A sample of 355 Iranian schoolteachers was surveyed. Exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) bifactor analysis indicated that the ODI meets the requirements for essential unidimensionality. ESEM bifactor analysis and scalability analysis supported the use of the ODI’s total score. The instrument exhibited high reliability. Cross-cultural measurement invariance was supported. As for the concurrent validity of the ODI, occupational depression correlated, in the expected direction, with job satisfaction, life satisfaction, well-being, work engagement, sick leave, and antidepressant intake. No association was observed with sex, age, length of employment, and a history of depressive disorders over the past year. The ODI displayed a balance of convergent and discriminant validity vis-a-vis an attribution-free measure of depressive symptoms. The prevalence of occupational depression was estimated at 2.8% in our sample. Our findings endorse the Persian version of the ODI and confirm the instrument’s overall robustness.

A Bifactor Exploratory Structural Equation Model of Students’ Growth-Focused Motivation

In the current longitudinal study, we investigated the structure of students’ (N = 1,469) specific growth constructs and their broader growth orientation using a bifactor exploratory structural equation model. We also examined the extent to which each of these components was associated with gains in students’ academic and nonacademic outcomes across one year of school. Results demonstrated unique variance attributable to specific growth constructs and broader growth orientation, suggesting that there is an integrative network of growth-focused motivation. These specific and broad growth components also presented different patterns of associations with students’ outcomes. Findings suggest educational interventions should target different components of students’ growth-focused motivation depending on the desired academic or nonacademic outcome that researchers and educators wish to improve.

The dimensionality of L2 teacher self-regulation strategies and its interactions with teacher self-efficacy: Exploratory structural equation modeling

Teacher self-regulation plays a critical role in effective teaching and professional success. It is not only deemed to be a path to professional development but also a prerequisite to cultivating students' self-regulatory capacity. However, our understanding of in-service second/foreign language (L2) teachers' self-regulation strategies is insufficient. This study aimed to address gaps in the literature by exploring the factorial structure of self-regulation strategies for teaching among L2 teachers in China. Grounded in sociocognitive theory, we proposed a multidimensional structure of self-regulation strategies for teaching and made methodological innovations by using rigorous statistical methods including exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) and bifactor ESEM to measure the construct-relevant multidimensionality of teacher self-regulation strategies. The study collected data from a sample of 242 in-service L2 teachers across 18 universities in various regions of China. Model comparisons confirmed the ESEM model with the best fit, accounting for 12 specific teaching strategies (i.e., organization, elaboration, critical thinking, goal setting, self-evaluation, self-monitoring, motivational self-talk, emotional regulation, interest enhancement, collective teacher commitment, seeking help and resources, and time and environment management). These specific teaching strategies with moderate correlations confirmed the multidimensional structure of teacher self-regulation entailing cognition, metacognition, motivation, and social behavior. In addition, L2 teachers’ self-regulation strategies were closely connected to their sense of efficacy in classroom management, student engagement, and instructional strategies, supporting the criterion validity.

Towards Clarification of the Second Language Learner Engagement Construct: Taking Stock of its Conceptual Overlap and Hierarchical Structure

Abstract L2 learner engagement is an emerging but critical construct in the field of psychology of language learning and teaching. However, research on L2 learner engagement has suffered from the inconsistent operationalization of the multidimensional structure of the construct and the conceptual overlap among its different components, making research synthesis and comparison across studies and contexts challenging. This study tested the utility of the bi-factor exploratory structural equation modelling framework (B-ESEM)—an overarching psychometric framework that can address the two critical concerns associated with the operationalization and measurement of L2 learner engagement. Data were collected from 413 Vietnamese EFL students. Through two stages of rigorous and strategic data analysis, the results suggested that participants’ responses to the L2 learner engagement scale could be best represented by a B-ESEM model that simultaneously assessed the global L2 engagement factor along with the specific components of behavioural, cognitive, affective, and social engagement while, at the same time, controlling for the cross-loadings of items onto non-target factors. Results of the study were discussed from both psychometric and substantive perspectives and implications were provided to capitalize on the utility of the B-ESEM approach in the assessment of L2 learner engagement.

Bifactor models of psychopathology using multi-informant and multi-instrument dimensional measures in the ABCD study.

Due to limitations of categorical definitions of mental illness, there is a need for quantitative empirical investigations of the dimensional structure of psychopathology. Using exploratory bifactor methods, this study investigated a comprehensive and representative structure of psychopathology in children to better understand how psychotic-like experiences (PLEs), autism spectrum disorder (ASD) symptoms, impulsivity, and sensitivity to reward and punishment, may be integrated into extant general factor models of psychopathology. We used seven child-report and three parent-report instruments capturing diverse mental health symptoms in 11,185 children aged 9-10 from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive DevelopmentSM (ABCD) Study. We built on previous modeling frameworks by conducting both split sample and full sample factor analytic approaches that harnessed recent methodological advances in bifactor exploratory structural equation modeling (B-ESEM) to examine a wide range of psychopathology measures not previously integrated into a single analysis. Validity of psychopathology dimensions was examined by investigating associations with sex, age, cognition, imaging measures, and medical service usage. All four factor analytic models showed excellent fit and similar structure within informant. PLEs loaded most highly onto a general psychopathology factor, suggesting that they may reflect non-specific risk for mental illness. ASD symptoms loaded separately from attention/hyperactivity symptoms. Symptoms of impulsivity and sensitivity to reward and punishment loaded onto specific factors, distinct from externalizing and internalizing factors. All identified factors were associated with clinically relevant risk factors, providing preliminary evidence for their construct validity. By integrating diverse child-report and parent-report psychopathology measures for children in the ABCD sample, we deliver data on the quantitative structure of psychopathology for an exceptionally large set of measurements and discuss implications for the field.

A bifactor representation of the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale for children: gender and age invariance and implications for adolescents’ social and academic adjustment

BackgroundThe Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale for Children (CES-DC) is a widely used scale for screening depressive symptoms in children and adolescents. This study aims to uncover the optimal factor structure of the DES-DC and presents an alternate conceptualization of adolescent depression by estimating bifactor models and several competing models using a sample of Chinese adolescents.MethodsThe participants were 533 adolescents (49.7% boys, 49.7% girls, 3 participants did not report) between 12 and 18 years of age attending public secondary schools in the middle part of mainland China. Data were collected in classrooms using a questionnaire survey. A structural equation modeling approach was used to estimate and compare a series of competing models for the DES-DC.ResultsA Bifactor exploratory structural equation model (Bi-ESEM) with the best model fit was retained for representing the current data. Tests of measurement invariance demonstrated strict measurement equivalence across gender and age. No gender and age differences have been found in the general depression factor. Findings provided evidence for the composite reliability and construct validity of DES-DC. Depressive symptoms positively related to the Big Five trait neuroticism, negative emotions, loneliness, social anxious behaviors, and disruptive behaviors during school and negatively related to agreeableness, conscientiousness, extraversion, physical health status, school connectedness, and academic self-efficacy.ConclusionsThis study provides support for the one general factor construct of the CES-DC and the continuum concept structure of adolescent depression. Moreover, this research offers empirical evidence for comparing depression symptoms among adolescent populations with diverse genders and age groups. Additionally, the findings replicate and expand upon the implications of depressive symptoms on adolescents’ traits, well-being, social-relational adjustment, and academic adaptation.

The burnout-depression conundrum: investigating construct-relevant multidimensionality across four countries and four patient samples

This research seeks to contribute to the ongoing discussion about the distinctive nature of burnout and depression. In a first study, we relied on employee samples from four European countries (N = 5199; 51.27% women; M age = 43.14). In a second study, we relied on a large sample of patients (N = 5791; 53.70% women; M age = 39.54) who received a diagnosis of burnout, depressive episode, job strain, or adaptation disorder. Across all samples and subsamples, we relied on the bifactor exploratory structural equation modelling to achieve an optimal disaggregation of the variance shared across our measures of burnout and depression from the variance uniquely associated with each specific subscale included in these measures. Our results supported the value of this representation of participants’ responses, as well as their invariance across samples. More precisely, our results revealed a strong underlying global factor representing participants’ levels of psychological distress, as well as the presence of equally strong specific factors supporting the distinctive nature of burnout and depression. This means that, although both conditions share common ground (i.e. psychological distress), they are not redundant. Interestingly, our results also unexpectedly suggested that suicidal ideation might represent a distinctive core component of depression.

Development of a revised version of the transdiagnostic skills scale (T2S-R).

The transdiagnostic approach has been shown to offer promising prospects in psychopathology, based on the observation that common factors may be involved in different psychiatric disorders. The transdiagnostic skills scale (T2S) was developed recently to assess the skills that are disrupted in these disorders. However, studies have shown that the T2S has lower predictive power for externalizing than internalizing disorders. This may be due to the fact that the skills assessed do not include the control of urges and cravings. The aims of the current study are thus to develop a revised version of the T2S (T2S-R) integrating this dimension, and to assess its factor structure and invariance across employment status (workers vs. students) and the level of psychopathology. We recruited 1,298 French participants online through social media. They completed the revised version of the T2S and the symptomatic transdiagnostic test (S2T), which evaluates 11 clusters of psychiatric symptoms. We assessed the factor structure, internal consistency, invariance, and predictive validity of the revised T2S. We found a good fit for a bifactor exploratory structural equation modeling (B-ESEM) approach including a global skills factor and seven specific factors. The results also indicate that the new dimension (i.e., control of urges and cravings) has good predictive value, especially for externalizing problems. We also found total invariance of the scale across employment status and partial invariance across the level of psychopathology. The revised version of the T2S-R has good psychometric properties. It predicts better externalizing problems than the original version. However, the scale remains more correlated with internalizing than externalizing problems. We discuss the implications of the results on the transdiagnostic conceptualization and the interest of using a mixed approach combining transdiagnostic and diagnostic analyses.

Can a general factor be derived from employees’ responses to items on the Individual Work Performance Review?

This study aimed to investigate whether permissible inferences can be derived from employees’ standing on a general performance factor from their responses to the Individual Work Performance Review (IWPR) items. The performance of 448 employees was rated (by their managers) using the IWPR. Latent variable modelling was performed through a bifactor exploratory structural equation model with the robust version of the maximum likelihood estimator. The general factor’s score was also used to inspect correlations with two work performance correlates: tenure and job level. In line with international findings, the results suggested that a general factor could explain 65% of the common variance in the 80 items of the IWPR. Job level, but not tenure, correlated with general job performance. The results support calculating an overall score for performance, which might be a suitable criterion to differentiate top performers, conduct criterion validity studies, and calculate the return on investment of selection procedures or training programmes.Contribution: The present study provides initial evidence for a general factor influencing employees’ responses to items on a generic performance measure in South Africa. In addition, the study showcases the application of advanced statistical methods in factor analyses, demonstrating their efficacy in evaluating the psychometric properties of hierarchical factor models derived from data provided on performance measures.

Translation and validation of a Chinese version of the Appearance Schemas Inventory-Revised in Chinese adults

The current study translated the Appearance Schemas Inventory-Revised (ASI-R) into Chinese (Mandarin) and examined its psychometric properties in Chinese adult women and men. Sample 1 included 400 women and 400 men to examine the factor structure of the ASI-R with exploratory factor analysis (EFA). Sample 2 involved 300 women and 300 men, and the EFA-derived factor structures in Sample 1 of the ASI-R were examined with exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM), bifactor ESEM (B-ESEM), and bifactor ESEM with correlated uniqueness for negatively worded items (B-ESEM-CU) for both women and men. Results of the EFA identified a 4-factor model in women and a 2-factor model in men. The B-ESEM-CU consistently showed the best model fit. In the B-ESEM-CU, the general factor was well-defined, but the specific factors were not, supporting the use of the global factor to conceptualize the ASI-R for Chinese women and men. Evidence of adequate internal consistency, test-retest reliability, and construct validity of the global factor of the ASI-R was suggested in both women and men. Findings suggest the ASI-R is a useful instrument to measure body image investment in Chinese women and men, specifically using the B-ESEM-CU to understand the dimensionality of the ASI-R.

The psychometric properties of the Burnout Assessment Tool in Norway: A thorough investigation into construct-relevant multidimensionality.

The World Health Organization recognizes burnout as an occupational issue. Nevertheless, accurately identifying employee burnout remains a challenging task. To complicate matters, current measures of burnout have demonstrated limitations, prompting the development of the Burnout Assessment Tool (BAT). Given these circumstances, conducting an in-depth examination of the BAT's construct-relevant multidimensionality is crucial. This study focuses on both the original 23-item BAT and the short 12-item version, using modern factor analytic methods to investigate reliability, validity, and measurement invariance in a representative sample from Norway (n = 493; 49.54% women). Our findings revealed that the bifactor exploratory structural equation modeling solution (burnout global factor and four specific burnout component factors) best explained the data for both BAT versions. All factors demonstrated adequate omega coefficients, with the global factor showing exceptional strength. Both BAT versions correlated highly with each other and with another burnout measure, suggesting convergent validity. Furthermore, both BAT versions achieved full (strict) measurement invariance based on gender. Finally, our results showed that burnout acts as a mediator in our proposed job demands-resources model as preliminary evidence of predictive validity. The study validates the Burnout Assessment Tool in the Norwegian context. The study supports the reliability, validity, and unbiased nature of the tool across genders. The findings also reinforce the importance of job demands and resources, along with burnout as a key mediator, in understanding workplace dynamics in accordance with job demands-resources theory.

Students’ perceived social-emotional competence: The role of autonomy-support and links with well-being, social-emotional skills, and behaviors

BackgroundThe salience of perceived academic competence has been long understood in educational research. Research is now revealing the salience of perceived social-emotional competence (perceived-SEC; i.e., the sense of being capable in one's social-emotional interactions). However, more research is needed to extend understanding of factors associated with perceived-SEC. AimsGuided by the Social and Emotional Competence School Model, we investigated students' perceived-SEC. We examined the extent to which students' perceptions of autonomy-supportive teaching are linked with perceived-SEC and, in turn, students’ well-being (student-reported positive and negative affect), social-emotional skills (parent-reported cognitive reappraisal and self-reflection), and behavioral outcomes (parent-reported prosocial behavior and conduct problems). SampleThe sample comprised 501 Australian students (and their parents/carers). MethodsUsing bifactor exploratory structural equation modelling, five dimensions of perceived-SEC (for assertiveness, tolerance, social regulation, emotion regulation, and emotional awareness) were examined via a global factor and as specific factors. Then, structural equation modelling was used to examine associations among all variables. ResultsPerceived autonomy-support was associated with global perceived-SEC. In turn, global perceived-SEC was associated with all outcomes. Three specific perceived-SEC factors also had unique associations with outcomes (beyond the role of the global factor): perceived competence for tolerance (linked with the two behaviors), emotional regulation (linked with negative affect and the two social-emotional skills), and emotional awareness (linked with self-reflection). ConclusionsFindings yield knowledge about perceived-SEC and hold implications for understanding and supporting students’ well-being, social-emotional skills, and behavioral outcomes.

Exploring the link between basic ICT competence beliefs and technology use for student teachers and teachers: A use of bifactor exploratory structural equation models

Basic ICT competence beliefs consist of a range of competence dimensions, including communication and collaboration and safety and security. Yet, unclear is if (student) teachers need to overall feel competence in using technology, or is feeling competent in specific competence dimensions sufficient for the use of technology. This study addressed this research lack and examined (a) basic ICT competence beliefs and technology use in different stages of teacher education and (b) the association between basic ICT competence beliefs and various hardware and software used. Data included 338 teachers and 343 student teachers from Germany and were analyzed using bifactor exploratory structural equation models. These models allow us to simultaneously account for general basic ICT competence beliefs (G-Factor) and specific basic ICT competence beliefs (S-Factors). The study found that teachers, on average, reported higher basic ICT competence beliefs than student teachers. For both student teachers and teachers, the use of wikis and forum was linked to higher general ICT competence beliefs. The use of LMS was linked to basic ICT competence beliefs in safety and security and problem solving. The study also identified unique links in both groups, such as wiki and weblog use being linked to higher general ICT competence beliefs for teachers. In various teacher education phases, we can emphasize the need to promote basic ICT competence beliefs to empower teachers in the digital transformation. By interpreting these results, however, it should be noted that our analysis only focused on utilizing particular hardware and software; replications of findings are also needed.

교사의 기본심리욕구 만족과 좌절, 심리적 소진, 직무열의의 관계

This study aimed to examine the relationship of basic psychological need satisfaction and frustration with psychological burnout and job engagement of teachers. In that comprehensive and in-depth understanding of teachers’ basic psychological needs satisfaction and frustration should be a primary step, bifactor exploratory structural equation modeling (B-ESEM) was applied to explore the factor structure of needs satisfaction and frustration. B-ESEM represents one global factor of need fulfillment and six specific factors as the combination of satisfaction and frustration with autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Using a sample of 397 elementary and secondary school teachers, the results of B-ESEM showed that teachers’ need satisfaction and frustration converged to need unfulfillment rather than need fulfillment, and competence satisfaction and frustration was crucial for their global levels of basic psychological need unfulfillment. The general factor of need unfulfillment significantly explained psychological burnout and job engagement. Even after general need unfulfillment was taken into account, autonomy frustration and competence frustration maintained unique effects of increasing psychological burnout. Satisfaction of autonomy, competence, and relatedness as well as autonomy frustration had unique effects of increasing job engagement. This suggests the establish the conditions that can promote competence satisfaction and block competence frustration to reduce teachers’ burnout and to enhance their job engagement.

Vaccination Attitudes Examination (VAX) Scale: a Bifactor-ESEM approach in a youth sample (15–24 years)

BackgroundThe Vaccination Attitudes Examination (VAX) Scale is a widely used scale designed to measure general attitudes toward vaccinations. However, evidence for the VAX’s structural, convergent, and discriminant validity is still limited, especially in youth samples.MethodsThe present study examined the psychometric multidimensionality and evidence of convergent and discriminant validity of the VAX using the bifactor-exploratory structural equation modeling approach (bifactor-ESEM). Using a sample of 803 Serbian adolescents and young adults (Mage = 18.23, SDage = 2.66, age range = 15–24 years, 59.2% female), we contrasted the original four-factor model of the VAX with alternative solutions (ESEM, bifactor-CFA, and bifactor-ESEM), and investigated associations between vaccination attitudes and a variety of external criteria.ResultsThe results supported the bifactor-ESEM solution with one general factor of vaccination attitudes and four specific factors (Mistrust of vaccine benefit, Worries about unforeseen future effects, Concerns about commercial profiteering, and Preference for natural immunity) as the best representation of the data. The general factor was well-defined, and three specific factors showed good validity and specificity after the general factor was taken into account. The results of convergent validity analyses showed that the general factor of vaccine attitudes and one specific factor (Mistrust of vaccine benefit) were good predictors of vaccine conspiracy beliefs, attitudes towards COVID-19 vaccination, intention to get vaccinated against COVID-19, and trust in healthcare. The remaining three specific factors’ contributions to external criteria were generally weak and nonsignificant. Evidence of the discriminant validity of the VAX scores was supported by weak positive associations of the general factor with medical fears and paranoid worry.ConclusionsThe present findings indicate that distinguishing general and specific components of vaccination attitudes offers a more nuanced assessment and understanding of vaccination attitudes.

Measuring the classroom level of the Dynamic Model of Educational Effectiveness through teacher self-report: development and validation of a new instrument

In the Dynamic Model of Educational Effectiveness, classroom-level effectiveness factors are assessed through observations or aggregated students’ ratings. The current study is aimed at developing and validating a complementary teacher self-report instrument of effective practices at classroom level (the DMEE-Class-T). The new instrument showed concurrent validity with the CSS-T. Dimensionality of both instruments was examined using the bifactor exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) framework, testing for alternative factorial representations of the data collected in a large-scale study conducted in all Luxembourgish elementary schools. For both instruments, the bifactor-ESEM and ESEM models showed excellent fitting indices and parameters, but the ESEM solution was retained as the best model for parsimony purpose. These results suggest that the eight types of practices assessed through the DMEE-Class-T could be considered as distinct facets of effective teaching practices while taking items cross-loadings into account. Implications for research and teachers’ professional development are discussed.