Bhander Group Research Articles

Geochemistry of Neoproterozoic arenites from the Murwara area, Katni District, Madhya Pradesh: Implications for provenance, weathering and Tectonic Setting

Geochemical analysis in terms of major, trace and rare earth elements of the Neo-Proterozoic arenites of Rewa and Bhander Groups of the Vindhyan Supergroup from Murwara, Katni district, M.P., has been carried out to determine the provenance, weathering and tectonic setting. The arenites are rich in SiO2 content but less in Na2O, K2O and CaO contents, suggesting the dominance of quartz and less amount of feldspars and rock fragments. Geochemically, these rocks are classified as quartz arenites to sub litharenite to sub-arkose. The CIA (75-98) and PIA values for these arenites and A-CN-K diagram indicates a high intensity of weathering in the source area. High LREE/HREE ratios, negative Eu anomaly and La/Sc, Th/Sc, Th/Co and Cr/Th ratio values suggest felsic source of these arenites. The discriminant diagram for these arenites indicates a quartzose sedimentary provenance. Ni vs TiO2 and Th/Sc vs Sc bivariate plots indicate that the felsic rocks have been the source rock for these arenites. The discrimination diagrams based on log (K2O+Na2O) vs SiO2 and Fe2O3+MgO vs TiO2 contents show a passive margin setting. Whereas the results of new discriminant function multi-dimensional diagram for the high silica arenites reveals a change from collision to continental rift setting

Geochemistry of Neoproterozoic Nagod Limestones from the Girgita Mine, Bhander Group, Madhya Pradesh, India

Vindhyan limestone of the Bander Group (Late Neoproterozoic) in the Maihar area, Satna district, is a part of an anticlinal fold and it forms an outlier in the study area. Geochemical analysis reveals that the proportion of Rare Earth Elements (REEs; La-Lu) in limestones varies between 14.8 ppm and 49.5 ppm. The Eu and Ce anomalies (normalized against Post Archean Australian Shale; PAAS) range from ~ 0.53 to 0.69 and ~ 0.57 to 1.07, respectively. The results of this study revealed that the limestones were principally controlled by the admixture of detrital materials, i.e., (i) The low values of REEs (ii) high values of Y/Ho (iii) positive correlation between REEs and Si, Al, Ti, V, Co, Ni, and Nb, and (iv) slightly negative correlation between CaO and REEs. Further, the variations in Ce anomaly may be due to the influx of detrital materials and positive Ce anomaly was attributable to the shallow marine depositional condition. The distribution of REEs (Chondrite normalized values) illustrates different patterns in the Nagod limestone due to the degree of differentiation in terms of LREEs and HREEs and Eu anomaly. The variations in elemental concentrations and the REE patterns revealed the mixing of detrital materials in the Nagod limestones.

Soft-sediment deformation structures in the Mesoproterozoic Kaimur Sandstone, Vindhyan Supergroup (Central India), and their seismotectonic implications

The unequivocal identification of soft-sediment deformation structures (SSDS) is a significant attribute to constrain the effect of transient geological events in the spatio-temporal evolution of ancient sedimentary basins. This paper reports and discusses, for the first time, the occurrence of several cm- to dm-scale SSDS within sandstone successions of the Mesoproterozoic Kaimur Group (Vindhyan Supergroup), exposed at the Hanumandhara Hill of Chitrakoot-Satna border region, Madhya Pradesh State, India. The SSDS are confined to a deformed interval comprising seven individual sedimentary units of variable composition and texture, which are sandwiched between nearly horizontally undeformed sandstone beds. The SSDS consist of load structures (load casts, flame structures, pseudonodules and ball-and-pillow structures), contorted lamination, convolute lamination, boudins and pinch-and-swell structures, deformed cross-stratification, slump structures, clastic injections, fluid escape structures, and syn-sedimentary fractures/faults. The present study suggests that the formation of these SSDS is essentially related to a combination of processes (gravitational instability, liquefaction, fluidization, and fluid escape) predominantly induced by seismic shocks. In addition, the restricted occurrence of fractures/faults in these deformed layers emphasizes the passage of seismically-induced Rayleigh waves. Considering the observed types of SSDS, their lateral homogeneity and geographic distribution along with the geodynamic framework of the Vindhyan Basin, the whole area can be tentatively attributed to having experienced moderate- to high-magnitude (M ≥ 5) seismicity. The present study combined with earlier reports of seismically-induced SSDS, from other regionally disposed formations belonging to the Lower (e.g., Kajrahat Limestone, Chopan Porcellanite, Koldaha Shale, Rohtas Limestone, and Glauconitic Sandstone of the Semri Group) and Upper (e.g., Bhander Limestone of the Bhander Group) Vindhyan Supergroup, respectively, provides evidence for the constant regional-scale seismo–tectonic activity within the Paleo-Mesoproterozoic Vindhyan Basin. Importantly, this observation further suggests that the intracratonic basins can be active tectonically contrary to the earlier propositions.

A new palaeobiological assemblage from the Son Valley Bhander Group and its implications on the age of the upper Vindhyans of India

The present study discusses the biostratigraphically significant new fossil assemblage recovered from the three stratigraphic units of the Bhander Group of the Vindhyan Supergroup, exposed in the Son Valley, India. The assemblage comprises vase-shaped like microfossils (possible VSMs) — Cycliocyrillium simplex, C. torquata, Bonniea pytinaia, B. dacruchares, scale microfossils, and cyanobacterial forms recorded in black bedded/lensoid chert associated with the Bhander Limestone. Late Ediacaran Leiosphere Palynoflora (LELP) and other associated organic-walled microfossils (Leiosphaeridia spp., such as L. jacutica, L. crassa, L. tenuissima, L. minutissima, and Ostiana microcystis) are noted in the Sirbu Shale. Charniodiscus-like Ediacaran megafossil is recorded in the Maihar Sandstone the youngest litho-unit of the Bhander Group. An assemblage of possible VSMs, acritarchs, and Ediacaran-like megafossil compliments the previous reports of the Ediacaran-aged fossils, such as Arumberia banksi, Beltanelliformis minuta and other fossils recovered from the Bhander Group and used to constrain the age of the Bhander Group. The biostratigraphic significance of the fossil assemblage has been discussed. The present study provides a better age constraint of the Bhander Group suggesting that this group continuously received sediments for deposition into the Ediacaran Period (635–538 Ma).

Proterozoic basins of the Bundelkhand Craton, India: Correlations and significance in understanding the tectonic evolution

The Bundelkhand Craton and associated basins of Peninsular India have received interest for debates related to research on their records of biological evolution, particularly reported occurrences of materials akin to triploblastic animals. Data related to geochronology and key tectono-stratigraphic markers of the block have been critically analysed and a model of evolution during the Proterozoic Eon is presented. The basement block, the Bundelkhand Granite Complex, evolved in three phases: Phase I (3551-3190 Ma), Phase II (2780-2550 Ma) and Phase III (2450-2250 Ma), followed by tectono-thermal events between the phases, representing temporal unconformities of ∼400 Ma and ∼100 Ma. The last phase of evolution was terminated with the amalgamation of the North Indian Block with the South Indian Block, forming the Satpura Orogen (phase IA) at ∼2250 Ma, which included the Singhbhum Orogenic belt. Orogenic collapse/extension at ∼2150 Ma developed a series of sedimentary basins running parallel to the orogenic belt. These Paleoproterozoic basins include the Mahakoshal, Bijawar, Sonrai and Gwalior basins around the Bundelkhand Granite Complex. The adjacent cratons also developed contemporaneous basins for the deposition of the Aravalli Supergroup (in the Western Indian Block), Cuddapah Supergroup (in the South Indian Block) and a proto-ocean at the site of the Eastern Ghats, extending towards the northern margin of the Singhbhum Block. All these basins had an inversion phase of 1950-1800 Ma, ending with the development of the Aravalli Orogen as well as Satpura Orogen (phase IB) and closing of sedimentation in the Paleoproterozoic basins. A new phase of extension at ∼1750 Ma initiated deposition of the Semri Group and Delhi Supergroup in the Northern and Western Indian blocks. The event was associated with the amalgamation of East Antarctic Block with the South Indian Block forming the Eastern Ghats (phase I)-Dalma Orogen. The later stage of Eastern Ghats (phase I)-Dalma Orogeny ∼1500 Ma was contemporaneous with the Delhi Orogeny (North Delhi Orogeny). The principal compressions acting opposite to each other during the Delhi Orogeny (with southeastward tectonic transport) and Eastern Ghats (phase I)-Dalma Orogeny (with northwestward tectonic transport) caused the second uplift of the Satpura Orogen (Satpura Orogeny II), as well as the uplift of the North Indian Block, developing a first-order spatio-temporal unconformity of ∼300 Ma gap above the Semri Group, till the extensional stress regime of ∼1200 Ma initiated deposition of the Kaimur Group. The closing of the Kaimur Basin took place during the Grenvillian Orogeny of ∼1100 Ma, which developed the Eastern Ghats (phase II) – Rayner Orogen on the eastern margin of Peninsular India. The far-field stress of the Eastern Ghats Orogeny (phase II) developed inversion/uplift in the Satpura Orogen and deposition of the Rewa Group in the North Indian Block. A second uplift of the Eastern Ghats (Eastern Ghats Orogeny phase II) and the Delhi Orogen (South Delhi Orogeny) at ∼1000-950 Ma closed the deposition of the Rewa Group and initiated deposition of the Bhander Group in the North Indian Block and the Sirohi Group in the Western Indian Block. The Pindwara Orogeny of ∼850 Ma in the Western Indian Block caused uplift of the North Indian Block and closed the deposition of the Bhander Group. The orogenic movements at ∼1500 Ma and ∼1100-950 Ma were associated with continental amalgamations along the western and southeastern margin of India, but did not involve any amalgamation in the central part of India, which was affected by reactivation/uplift of an older structural fabric.

Investigation on Suitability of Argillaceous Rocks of Vindhyan Super Group as Host Rock for Deep Geological Repository using Thermal Analysis

Argillaceous rocks are being considered as a potential host rock for deep geological repository (DGR) for hosting vitrified high level radioactive waste canisters by many countries worldwide. Numerical simulation of thermal evolution in the repository environment is an important study for the long term safety performance assessment of a DGR. In this study, thermal dissipation in the near field area of a conceptual repository in Ganurgarh shales from Bhander Group of Vindhyan Super Group, which is the thickest sedimentary succession of India, has been simulated using commercial software FLAC3D, which solves the governing heat diffusion equation using explicit and implicit finite difference methods. Model parameters like thermal conductivity, specific heat, density of the shales are generated in the laboratory. From the analysis of time dependent temperature profile it is observed that maximum temperature of 70.5oC is attained at canister surface after 22 years of heating for a heat loadings of 500 W/overpack. Since the maximum temperature is well below the permissible limit of temperature (100oC), the heat load of the source is increased to 700 W/overpack and in this case the simulated value of maximum temperature is 93­oC. Maximum temperatures at other locations within the near field region are also within the permissible limit.

Dickinsonia discovered in India and late Ediacaran biogeography

The discovery of Dickinsonia in India allows assessment of biogeographic provinces and plate tectonic reconstructions for the late Ediacaran. The fossils were found in the roof of Auditorium Cave at Bhimbetka Rock Shelters, a UNESCO World Heritage Site for Paleolithic and Mesolithic cave art, near Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh. The fossils are identical with Dickinsonia tenuis from the Ediacara Member of the Rawnsley Quartzite in South Australia, and like them also show deformation due to lateral impingement, arcuate pieces missing, and alignment. They are within the late Ediacaran, Maihar Sandstone of the Bhander Group, in red sandstones formed in coastal plain paleoenvironments, including eolian, tsunamite, and intertidal bedforms. This new occurrence confirms assembly of Gondwanaland by 550 Ma, but not reconstructions adjusted for true polar wander. Cloudina and other small shelly marine fossils were low latitude, but vendobionts such as Dickinsonia were at temperate to subtropical latitudes.

Towards resolving the ‘jigsaw puzzle’ and age-fossil inconsistency within East Gondwana

Lack of high quality zircon U-Pb age data has hampered us from ascertaining the relative positions of various continental blocks within East Gondwana, which also resulted in age-fossil inconsistencies in the Neoproterozoic successions particularly within India Peninsular region. By means of analyzing detrital zircons from the Neoproterozoic sedimentary rocks of Peninsular India and NW Australia, we found similar age spectra among NW India, Himalaya, NW Australia and Cathaysia Block that are indications of their proximity with each other. A scenario can be envisaged that following delivery of detritus (1.3–1.1 Ga) to northern India during early to middle Ediacaran Period, South China together with Australia probably clockwise rotated during late Ediacaran to Cambrian Period which prompted South China to receive detritus (1.3–1.1 Ga) from Western and northwestern Australia. New radiometric dates suggest an Ediacaran age for the Marwar and Bhander groups, thus confirming previous biostratigraphic correlations among the Marwar, Kurnool, Bhima and Bhander Groups. Given their diverse age spectra, the Maihar Sandstone and the Sonia Sandstone were possibly deposited in different time intervals/slices. Uncertainties in obtaining the youngest age of detrital zircons mean care must be taken when using detrital zircon age for tectonic regime classification.

Pyritized Chuaria-Tawuia from the Pre-Ediacaran Samria Shale, Upper Vindhyans, Rajasthan: An Indication of Anaerobic Environmental Conditions

The paper records carbonaceous megafossils assignable to pre-Ediacaran age from a new horizon, Samria Shale, Bhander Group, Upper Vindhyans, Bundi district, Rajasthan. The assemblage is represented by Pyritized Chuaria and Tawuia with equally good morphological details like excystment structures, suggesting their resistant vesicles and eukaryotic affinity. In addition, the assemblage also comprises multicellular metaphytes. Pyritized fossils indicate almost anaerobic environmental condition, rapid burial of organisms under ocean sediment and small amount of decaying bacteria. Pyritization also indicate the presence of sulphur reducing bacteria and dissolved iron at the time of fossilization. Present assemblage is represented by Chuaria circularis, Tawuia dalensis, Ellipsophysa sp., Eopalmaria prinstina, Tuanshanzia lanceolata or Changchengia stipitata,Longfengshania sp. and Proterotainia montana. Two unidentified fossils forms informally described as Form ‘A’ and ‘B’. An unusual and rarely reported process of fossil pyritization has been observed in present assemblage.

Nuevo registro de la biota ediacárica en la Arenisca de Jodhpur (Supergrupo de Marwar), Rajasthan occidental, India

En el oeste de Rajasthan, India, la Arenisca de Jodhpur (Supergrupo de Marwar) ha librado un nuevo conjunto fósil ediacárico que comprende especímenes macroscópicos bien conservados de Aspidella, Hiemalora, grandes discos ediacáricos, Tirasiana disciformis, asteroides de Medusinites, fósiles de cuerpo blando ediacáricos similares a Anfesta y estructuras de tapices microbianas (Arumberia banksi, estructuras microbianas de tipo Kinneyia, estructuras microbianas arrugadas y otras estructuras microbianas). El registro fósil permite sugerir una amplia correlación con la Formación de Fermuse, Terranova, Australia meridional, el Mar Blanco de Rusia y Noruega, y la correlación regional con el Grupo de Bhander (Supergroup de Vindhyan) y el Grupo de Krol del Himalaya Interior.

Evolution of the Proterozoic Vindhyan Basin, Rajasthan, India: insights from geochemical provenance of siliciclastic sediments

ABSTRACTThe Vindhyan Basin of western India is a part of the largest Proterozoic sedimentary basin of the Indian subcontinent. Deposited in a largely shallow marine environment, the sedimentary sequence of the basin, known as the Vindhyan Supergroup, is believed to hold clues to our understanding of the evolution of life and climate during the Proterozoic. Inspite of multiple important paleobiological discoveries from these rocks, our knowledge about the development of the basin and responsible regional tectonics had remained rudimentary. Here, we propose a model for the evolutionary history of the Vindhyan Basin based on quantitative provenance analysis through geochemical and isotopic compositions of siliciclastic sediments. According to our model, the basin opened up in a foreland setting during an event that was contemporaneous with the amalgamation of the supercontinent Columbia. In the Lower Vindhyans, most of the sediments were derived from the basement gneisses (BGC-I & II) and a younger differentiated magmatic arc, whereas the >1.7 Ga rocks of the Aravalli and Delhi supergroups formed the source area for the Upper Vindhyans. In comparison to their counterparts in the eastern sector in the Son Valley, the Semri and Kaimur groups of the western sector had a relatively younger provenance; whereas, the Rewa and Bhander groups of both the sectors appear to have shared geochemically similar provenances. Unlike its counterpart in the eastern sector, the provenance of the sediments in the western sector had remained constant across the supposedly 400 million years break in sedimentation between the Lower and the Upper Vindhyans. However, a change in the provenance is observed during the transition from the Kaimur to Rewa group in the western sector which we infer to be a break in the deposition.

Temperature-dependent thermophysical properties of Ganurgarh shales from Bhander group, India

Thermal conductivity is a very important property of rocks which determines the rate of heat transfer between two adjacent layers of rock. Temperature-dependent thermal properties of Ganurgarh shale are analyzed and presented over a temperature range from air dried to 900 °C. Physico-mechanical properties, porosity, density and P-wave velocity are determined as per ISRM standards. In addition, changes in internal microstructure are studied using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Thermal conductivity is predicted using P-wave velocity and porosity of Ganurgarh shale. The effect of temperature on the microstructure, porosity, and mineralogical composition of shale and dependency of thermal conductivity on porosity of shale is discussed. It has also been found that as temperature increases, porosity of Ganurgarh shale increases up to 2.3 times of its initial porosity because of thermal cracking which also acts as barrier of heat flow and hence thermal conductivity decreases. Uncertainties of measured quantities are calculated and the total combined expanded uncertainty for thermal conductivity value of Ganurgarh shale at 95 % confidence level is less than 6 %. All the results obtained using a state-of-the-art single hot guarded parallel plate apparatus.

A Case of Normal Regression with Sea Level Transgression: Example from the Ganurgarh Shale, Vindhyan Basin, Maihar Area, M.P., India

Abstract The Ganurgarh shale, a formation belonging to the Bhander Group of Vindhyan basin is investigated using field based detailed lithofacies and petrofacies analyses in order to interpret the depositional environment in a sequence stratigraphic context. Five major lithofacies have been recognized consisting of calcareous sandstones, laminated mudstones, rippled siltstones, red-grey shales and sandy limestones characterized by small to large-scale cross-bedding, ripple cross-lamination of wave and current origin, parallel lamination, low-angle horizontal bedding, flaser and lenticular bedding, mud-cracks, salt pseudomorphs, convolute bedding and load structures. The constituent lithofacies are recurring and grouped into three lithofacies associations where, the association A is composed of fining upwards and B with coarsening upwards cycles at the lower and middle levels of the succession respectively, are dominantly arenaceous whereas, the association C occurring at upper levels is fining upwards (FU) and becomes calcareous with meager representation of clastics. Petrographically, the section offers three main petrofacies viz., (a) sandstone- (b) siltstone- (c) sandy limestone-petrofacies. Lithofacies characters complimented with petrography show that deposition occurred within the shoreface (subtidal) to foreshore intertidal domain involving tidal flats with sub-environments ranging from intertidal to supratidal. However, lithofacies associations within the Ganurgarh shale of Maihar area represent a case of normal regression during sea level transgression. In the beginning, probably because of excessive sediment supply the sea level had a falling trend during an overall transgressive phase ultimately culminating into limestone sedimentation.

Depositional history of the Upper Vindhyan succession, central India: Time constraints from Pb–Pb isochron ages of its carbonate components

Age of the upper sedimentary units (Rewa and Bhander Groups) of the largest Proterozoic Vindhyan Basin in central India has so far been considered to be close to 650Ma (late Neoproterozoic) based on collective proxy dates in the absence of direct isotopic dates. A drastic upward revision of this age by more than 300Ma has very recently been proposed from the similarity of the paleomagnetic directions in these units with those of the 1070Ma old Majhgawan kimberlite intrusion into their basal parts, and the presence of detrital zircons not younger than 1020Ma. We report now Pb–Pb isochron ages of 908±72Ma, 866±180Ma and 1073±210Ma for the three distinct carbonate horizons, Bhander-, Balwan- and Lakheri Limestones, respectively as independent and direct evidence on the age of the Upper Vindhyan succession. The consistency of the three ages close to 900Ma provides a strong support for the proposed shift on the timing and duration of sedimentation in the Upper Vindhyan sequence.

Paleomagnetism of Bhander Sediments from Bhopal Inlier, Vindhyan Supergroup

Abstract: Paleomagnetic investigations have been carried out on poorly determined radiometric age controls of Bhander sandstones within the vicinity of Bhopal Inlier of the Upper Vindhyan Supergroup. Available ages assigned to the Upper Vindhyan sequence range from Cambrian to the Mesoproterozoic and are derived from a variety of sources and methods. Paleomagnetic data generated from the Bhander Group of Bhopal Inlier yielded a mean declination of 357° and mean inclination of 58° (k=17.69, α95 = 16.38) with a Virtual Geomagnetic Pole (VGP) at 74° N, 69.0° E. This pole position is falling close to the Malani Igneous Suite (MIS) mean palaeomagnetic pole of 67.8° N and 72.5° E (A95=8.8°) by Gregory et al. (2009). The results obtained from this study and previous work on the 1073 Ma Majhgawan kimberlite, as well as detrital zircon geochronology of the Upper Bhander sandstone suggest that the Upper Vindhyan sequence may be older than is commonly thought earlier.

Geochemistry of Mesoproterozoic sedimentary rocks of upper Vindhyan Group, southeastern Rajasthan and implications for weathering history, composition and tectonic setting of continental crust in the northern part of Indian shield

The upper Vindhyan succession of southeastern Rajasthan is divisible into Kaimur, Rewa and Bhander Groups. The major and trace element (including rare earth elements) data of the upper Vindhyan shales and sandstones are investigated to determine the weathering history, composition, and tectonic setting of Mesoproterozoic continental crust. CIA (chemical index of alteration) values, A–CN–K plot (A=Al2O3, CN=CaO*+Na2O, K=K2O) and depletion in U, Na2O, CaO, Sr and Ba suggest that the source area experienced moderate to high degree of chemical weathering under warm and humid conditions. Provenance modeling indicates that the Kaimur sandstones are best modeled with a mixture having 40% granitic gneiss, 20% Tonalite–Trondhjemite–Granodiorite (TTG), 20% mafic enclaves and 20% Berach Granite of the Banded Gneissic Complex (BGC). A mixture of 60% granitic gneiss, 20% mafic enclaves and 20% Berach Granite of the BGC can model the Rewa and Bhander Groups. It is suggested that the upper Vindhyan sedimentation commenced at the time of Delhi–Sausar orogeny at about 1100–1000Ma. The orogenic movements uplifted the parts of old continental crust in the BGC terrain creating positive areas, which exposed older crustal blocks containing TTG as important component. The debris of Kaimur sandstone probably derived from these uplifted blocks. As indicated by Palaeocurrent data, the Rewa and Bhander formations were derived from Bundelkhand Granitic Gneiss Complex (BGGC) occurring to the north of the basin and/or the Chotanagpur Granitic Gneiss Complex (CGGC) of eastern Indian shield. The derivation of Lower and upper groups of Vindhyan succession from different source terrains of identical composition suggests that at the time of Vindhyan sedimentation, the BGC of Rajasthan, the BGGC of Central India and the CGGC of eastern India had similar lithological composition. This implies that well before the origin of the Vindhyan basin these discrete terrains evolved as a single unit that existed as a Mesoarchaean nucleus in the northern part of the Indian shield.

Morphodiversity, complexity and macroevolution: revealed by the megascopic life of the Palaeo-Neoproterozoic Vindhyan Supergroup, India

Abstract Evidence of past life found in the Vindhyan Supergroup exhibits extensive diversity and taxonomically unresolved morphological complexities indicating varied biological affinities, advanced life and macroevolutionary dynamics of evolving clades. The megascopic life of the supergroup documents possibly two macroevolutionary modes, demarcated as: (i) the Palaeo-Mesoproterozoic transitional period, which is represented by the fossil assemblages of the Semri and Rewa groups, and exhibits the domination of a diversified prokaryotic cyanobacterial community and moderately diversified megascopic life; (ii) the Neoproterozoic (Bhander groups, Uppermost Vindhyans), represented by the diversified and morphologically complex megascopic eukaryotes, and the emergence of multicellularity among plant and animal clades, viz. structures resembling bryophytes, sporophyte and Ediacara fauna. The overall Vindhyan fossils exhibit episodes of adaptive innovations and the emergence of complex morphologies in separate lineages of evolutionary history, resulting in extensive morphodiversity. The present assemblage can be represented by that of prokaryotes, eukaryotes, possibly a symbiotic association, a Jacutianema -like Neoproterozoic form, specimens possibly of vaucheriacean affinity, mesoscopic intermediate forms inferred as transitional forms of microscopic–megascopic evolution, discs with process-like structures, the emergence of animal life (Ediacaran fauna) and a number of other complex morphologies that have no parallels in time and space. Traditionally and conventionally, the age of the Vindhyan Supergroup is considered to be that of Palaeoproterozoic–Neoproterozoic.

Ediacaran Discs from the Jodhpur Sandstone, Marwar Supergroup, India: A Biological Diversification or Taphonomic Interplay?

The noncarbonaceous Ediacaran discs of variable morphologies from the Jodhpur Sandstone Formation of the Marwar Supergroup, western Rajasthan, suggest different biologic affinities of plant and animal kingdom. These discs are commonly preserved on the bedding surfaces of siliciclastic sandstone and shale in strong positive relief and appear to possess a flexible to rigid body. Discs assignable to Aspidella, Cyclomedusa, Nimbia and Heimalora; all possibly inclining towards cnidarian affinity are being reported from the sandstone beds in Sursagar area. Variable morphologies among discs preserved in siliciclastic shale beds from the Artiya Kalan area support scyphozoan affinity (earlier named Marsonia from the same locality) and cnidarian affinity for small discs comparable with Funisia (considered being the first animals having sexual reproduction). Disc’s morphologies also suggest ephyra stage of Aurilia (a cnidarian form) or budding stages of some fungi, like Germinosphaera (multicellular benthic fungal fossils) and noncarbonaceous discs with well preserved wrinkles and folds like in Chuaria. Discs from the Jodhpur Sandstone, may at times display taphonomic interplay, but consistency and repetition in morphology support variable biological affinities representing diverse assemblage and advance ecosystem prevailing during Ediacaran period. A degree of genetic variability can be expected within any taxa, and this may be compounded by preservation factors affecting the Jodhpur Ediacaran discs. Sudden increase in size or gigantism is a common feature of Ediacaran life, which is evident in case of Jodhpur discs also. On the basis of fossil assemblage, the Jodhpur Group (the Marwar Supergroup) is regionally correlated with the Bhander Group of the Vindhyan Supergroup and Krol Group of Lesser Himalaya. Globally, the assemblage is comparable with the Long Mynd Group, Shropshire, UK, Fermuse Formation Newfoundland, South Australia, Russia and Norway.

Problematic fossils from the Palaeo-Neoproterozoic Vindhyan Supergroup, India

Fossils of the Vindhyan Supergroup exhibit extensive diversity and variable biologic affinities represented by: bacteria, cyanobacteria, algae, fungi, acritarchs, metaphytes and metazoans (including members of the Ediacaran Fauna) and ranging from less than a micron to almost a metre in size. Besides identified fossils, a number of bizarre morphologies (due to deviation of morphology from conventional structures), present in various stratigraphic horizons, have been observed. It is very difficult to identify and decide their biologic affinities. In thin sections of Lower Vindhyan cherts, microfossils resembling lichen-like or fungal forms in which a sac encompassing a coiled filament may possibly indicate a symbiotic relationship, a Volvox colony-like structure and a vase-shaped body without an opening are unique. Among the carbonaceous fossils, very unusual and interesting fossil is a transparent disc comprising numerous appendages of an unidentified mesoscopic insect-like organism. Megascopic branching and associated Grypania-like structure is another form preserved as impression on micritic limestone. Petrographic thin sections of chert belonging to the Sirbu Shale Formation, exhibit presence of microscopic bizarre forms. The assemblage includes acritarchs and acanthomorphs of variable morphology and a dividing cell-like structure interpreted to be of rhodophycean affinity or a cleaving embryo of an animal affinity. Other peculiar morphologies among the carbonaceous fossils are: branched filaments that have attached sporangia-like vesicles, Chuaria-like body comprising cluster of very small-sized spheroids resemble scale-like structure, a chrysophycean alga or a multicellular tissue of a metaphyte. Another carbonaceous fossil represents a possible metazoan exhibiting an elongate body and a mid-gut-like structure or a Vaucheriacean alga. Although the biologic affinities of these bizarre forms can be a matter of debate, their biogenic nature is almost undoubted. The presence of such forms in the Vindhyans indicates advancement in morphology and a gradual evolution of life during the Palaeoproterozoic–Neoproterozoic period. In addition, presence of Ediacaran fossils in Bhander Group and large-sized acritarchs especially Trachyhystrichosphaera sp. in petrographic thin section of chert from the Sirbu Shale Formation, Bhander Group, Upper Vindhyans, suggests Ediacaran age as an upper age limit of the Vindhyan Supergroup.

Modal analysis and geochemistry of two sandstones of the Bhander Group (Late Neoproterozoic) in parts of the Central Indian Vindhyan basin and their bearing on the provenance and tectonics

The Neoproterozoic Bhander Group in the Son Valley, central India conformably overlying the Rewa Group, is the uppermost subdivision of the Vindhyan Supergroup dominantly composed of arenites, carbonates and shales. In Maihar-Nagod area, a thick pile of unmetamorphosed clastic sedimentary rocks of Bhander Group is exposed, which provides a unique opportunity to study Neoproterozoic basin development through provenance and tectonic interpretations. The provenance discrimination and tectonic setting interpretations are based on modal analysis and whole rock geochemistry. The average framework composition of the detrital sediments composed of quartz and sedimentary lithic fragments are classified as quartz arenite to sublitharenite. The sandstone geochemically reflects high SiO2, moderate Al2O3 and low CaO and Na2O type arenite. The high concentration of HFSE such as Zr, Hf, and Th/Sc, Th/U ratios in these sandstones indicate a mixed provenance. The chondrite normalized REE pattern shows moderate to strong negative Eu anomaly which suggests that major part of the sediments were derived from the granitic source area. The sandstone tectonic discrimination diagrams and various geochemical plots suggest that the provenance of the lower and upper Bhander sandstone formations was continental interior to recycled orogen.