Between-participants Factorial Design Research Articles

Elucidating the impact of cognitive and behavioral responses to web banner-ad frequency

ABSTRACT The impact of banner advertisement frequency on consumers’ cognitive (i.e., brand recall) and behavioral responses (i.e., click-through) is investigated, and a (4 × 2) between-participants factorial design matrix is developed. Applying logistic regression to a sample of 200 respondents, it was found that frequency of exposure is a powerful psychological cue affecting users’ cognition and behavior. Results indicated that the impact of banner advertisement frequency on both click-through and brand recall generates a response curve similar to a U-shaped curve; however, the effect varies in strength for different types of banner ads. Finally, we discuss theoretical and managerial implications of our research and identify future research directions, and explore the application of advanced AI techniques such as Deep Neural Networks (DNN) in banner-ad frequency.

Framing COVID-19 Preprint Research as Uncertain: A Mixed-Method Study of Public Reactions

ABSTRACT During the COVID-19 pandemic, journalists were encouraged to convey uncertainty surrounding preliminary scientific evidence, including mentioning when research is unpublished or unverified by peer review. To understand how public audiences interpret this information, we conducted a mixed method study with U.S. adults. Participants read a news article about preprint COVID-19 vaccine research in early April 2021, just as the vaccine was becoming widely available to the U.S. public. We modified the article to test two ways of conveying uncertainty (hedging of scientific claims and mention of preprint status) in a 2 × 2 between-participants factorial design. To complement this, we collected open-ended data to assess participants’ understanding of the concept of a scientific preprint. In all, participants who read hedged (vs. unhedged) versions of the article reported less favorable vaccine attitudes and intentions and found the scientists and news reporting less trustworthy. These effects were moderated by participants’ epistemic beliefs and their preference for information about scientific uncertainty. However, there was no impact of describing the study as a preprint, and participants’ qualitative responses indicated a limited understanding of the concept. We discuss implications of these findings for communicating initial scientific evidence to the public and we outline important next steps for research and theory-building.

Disagreement, justification, and equitable moral judgments: A brief training study

Although theorists agree that social interactions play a major role in moral development, previous research has not experimentally assessed how specific features of social interactions affect children’s moral judgments and reasoning. The current study assessed two features: disagreement and justification. In a brief training phase, children aged 4–5.5 years (N = 129) discussed simple moral scenarios about issues of fairness (how to allocate things between individuals) with a puppet who, in a between-participants factorial design, either agreed or disagreed with the children’s ideas and either asked or did not ask the children to justify their ideas. Children then responded to another set of moral scenarios in a test phase that was the same for all children. Children in the “agree and do not justify” baseline condition showed an inflexible equality bias (preferring only equal allocations regardless of context), but children who had experiences of disagreement or experiences of being asked to justify themselves shifted toward making equitable decisions based on common ground norms and values. Furthermore, false belief competence was related to children’s decisions and justifications. These findings support the classic Piagetian hypothesis that social interactions are a catalyst of cognitive disequilibrium and moral development.

Apology Cost Is More Strongly Associated With Perceived Sincerity Than Forgiveness

This study aimed at replicating a previously reported pattern: costly apologies are perceived as more sincere than non-costly apologies even when the transgression was unintentional, while costly apologies do not foster forgiveness more than non-costly apologies when the transgression was unintentional. We conducted a vignette study with a 2 (apology cost: costly vs. non-costly) × 3 (intention: no vs. ambiguous vs. malicious intention) between-participants factorial design. We failed to replicate the aforementioned pattern. Instead, we found that costly apologies promote not only perceived sincerity but also forgiveness in all three intention conditions. In addition, there were two notable patterns. First, the effect of apology cost was stronger for perceived sincerity than for forgiveness in all three intention conditions. Second, both perceived sincerity and forgiveness decreased as the intentional nature of the transgression was described more clearly.

Effects of transparent brand communication on perceived brand authenticity and consumer responses

PurposeThis study aims to understand the effects of brands’ transparent communication (i.e. production transparency and cost transparency) on consumers’ perceptions of a brand’s perceived transparency and authenticity, as well as how such perceptions impact consumers’ attitude, trust and behavioral intentions.Design/methodology/approachTwo between-participants factorial design experiments (n = 176 for Study 1 and n = 169 for Study 2) were conducted to examine consumers’ responses to a brand’s cost transparency and production transparency.FindingsThe results revealed that transparency in the focal brand’s communication of production and cost would increase consumers’ perceptions of the brand’s transparency and authenticity because of its perceived information sensitivity. Such positive effects were found to similarly impact consumers’ attitude, trust and behavioral intention toward the brand.Practical implicationsThe results point to the importance of brand transparency in marketing communication, specifically as it pertains to the influence that the inclusion of transparent cost and production information can have on consumers’ perceptions of authenticity, trust and attitude, as well as how these perceptions translate into behavioral intention.Originality/valueTo the best of the authors’ knowledge, this study is among the first to explore the differences between production transparency and cost transparency in influencing consumer responses and the underlying mechanisms. The findings also expand to the literature on brand transparency and brand authenticity.

How can hospitals engage their current employees in the recruitment of qualified nurses? A referral bonus and self-determination perspective.

To investigate the impact of promising a referral bonus and an autonomous referral request on nurses' referral likelihood and the quality of their referrals. We applied a 2×2 between-participants factorial design with referral bonus and autonomous referral request as experimental variables. In May 2019, 110 nurses working in Belgian hospitals were shown a fictitious e-mail with a request from their employer to look for potential new-hires and filled out an online survey measuring referral likelihood and quality. Promising a referral bonus did not affect nurses' referral likelihood and quality. Instead supporting self-determination theory, nurses exposed to the autonomous request were more likely to refer and assure referral quality than those exposed to the controlling request. Hospitals can increase nurses' referral likelihood and quality by framing their referral request in an autonomy-supportive way. Recruiting nurses are more important than ever in the current Covid-19 crisis. Our findings offer practical insights on how hospitals can engage their employees in the recruitment of nurses (i.e. through framing referral requests in an autonomy-supportive way).

Millennials' attitude toward chatbots: an experimental study in a social relationship perspective

PurposeChatbots represent an innovative channel for retailers to meet young customers' needs anywhere and at any time. Being an emergent technology, however, it is important to investigate more thoroughly how users perceive it, and which are the variables that enhance a positive attitude towards this technology. On this premise, this study applies a social relationship perspective to the design of chatbots addressed to younger consumers.Design/methodology/approachThe study adopts a between-participants factorial design to investigate the effects of visual cues (avatar presence vs avatar absence) and interaction styles (social-oriented vs task-oriented) on social presence and how this, in turn, enhances millennials' perceived enjoyment, trust and, ultimately, attitude towards the chatbot. A survey experiment was employed to conduct the study on data collected from 193 Italian millennials.FindingsThe results show that applying a social-oriented interaction style increases users' perception of social presence, while an insignificant effect was found for avatar presence. The partial least square structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) analysis further confirms the hypothesised model.Originality/valueThe adoption of new digital technologies such as chatbots is likely to have a far reaching effect on retailers, consumers, employees and society. For this reason, a broad understanding of the phenomenon is needed. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to provide results from an experimental design in which both interaction style (social- vs task-oriented) and avatar (presence vs absence) of a chatbot are manipulated to directly explore social presence and its effect on trust, perceived enjoyment and millennials' attitude towards a chatbot applied for retailing purposes.

Exploring message framing to engage parents in early screening for autism spectrum disorder

ObjectiveWith the average age of diagnosis of autism hovering between 4 and 5 years of age, many children do not receive critical early intervention. Health information messages may be useful for increasing parents’ understanding of the importance of early autism screening. MethodsMessages promoting autism screening were presented to 282 parents in a 2 (message frame: gain, loss) x 3 (evidence type: narrative, statistical, and hybrid), online, between-participants factorial design. Participants’ involvement, affective responses, perceived threat to behavioral freedom, attitudes, and intentions to discuss screening with a healthcare provider were analyzed. ResultsLoss-framed messages that included a hybrid of first-person narrative and statistical evidence were related to favorable ratings for most outcomes. Levels of perceived threat to behavioral freedom partially mediated involvement and attitudes, in a negative direction, for loss-framed narrative messages. ConclusionResults of this preliminary study supported the inclusion of both evidence types in messages developed to encourage parents to engage in early screening for autism, and partially supported focusing these messages on the potential costs of not screening. Practice implicationsEffective use of messaging with parents could help to increase knowledge and facilitate shared decision-making with health care providers to engage in early screening for autism.

Okay to promote eating less meat, but don't be a cheat – The role of dietary identity, perceived inconsistency and inclusive language of an advocate in legitimizing meat reduction

The legitimacy of meat-rich diets in Western societies is slowly in decline as the benefits of meat reduction for personal health, ecological welfare, and animal welfare are become increasingly clear. This is mirrored by a surge of campaigns, which rely heavily on social media platforms to legitimize meat reduction among their target audience: meat-eaters. Social Identity Theory suggests that the effectiveness of meat reduction advocacy will depend on the dietary identity of advocates and their rhetorical style. To examine this, we used a 2 × 2 between-participants factorial design in which we exposed meat-eaters (N = 186) to a meat reduction campaign image shared by an advocate on Facebook, where the advocate was portrayed as either a meat-eater (ingroup) or a vegetarian (outgroup), who used either inclusive language (“we can eat less meat”) or personal language (“you can eat less meat”) to promote meat reduction. Results reveal that the meat-eating (versus vegetarian) advocate was more likely perceived as inconsistent when promoting meat reduction. Higher perceptions of inconsistency were significantly associated with a lower perceived legitimacy of the message for both advocate types, especially when the advocate was a vegetarian. We also found that meat-eaters were more tolerant of a perceived inconsistency when advocates used inclusive rather than personal language. Perceptions of favouritism towards the advocate could explain the conditional effects of perceived inconsistency on message legitimacy. Lastly, we could observe that meat-eaters who perceived the message as more legitimate and identified less as meat-eaters were more willing to eat less meat. Practical implications of our findings are considered.

Learning Effects, Achievement Goals and Time Constraints in Accounting Education: Findings from Experiments

Accounting education has been a topic of great concern to scholars, and teachers of accounting want to enhance students’ learning performance. Thus, in this study, we conducted laboratory experiments to investigate how mastery/performance achievement goal orientations influence the accounting performance of students. Ninety undergraduates from Tainan Technology University participated in this study. The experiment examined how the type of student achievement goal and the test time influenced accounting performance. A two-way between-participants factorial design of achievement goal (mastery vs. performance) × test time (30 vs. 40 vs. 50 min) was adopted. The results of students’ score changes from pre-test to post-test revealed that those students with a mastery achievement goal had a better learning effect than those with a performance achievement goal. The main effect of test time also showed a significant difference. The score change in the low-difficulty condition (longest time) was significantly higher than that in the moderate-difficulty condition (intermediate amount of time), and the score change in the moderate-difficulty condition was significantly higher than that in the high-difficulty condition (shortest time). Lastly, the two-way interaction of achievement goal type and test time was significant. The effect of test difficulty on score change was contingent on the type of achievement goal.

Speech Rate, Intonation, and Pitch: Investigating the Bias and Cue Effects of Vocal Confidence on Persuasion.

Three experiments were designed to investigate the effects and psychological mechanisms of three vocal qualities on persuasion. Experiment 1 (N = 394) employed a 2 (elaboration: high vs. low) × 2 (vocal speed: fast vs. slow) × 2 (vocal intonation: falling vs. rising) between-participants factorial design. As predicted, vocal speed and vocal intonation influenced global perceptions of speaker confidence. Under high-elaboration, vocal confidence biased thought-favorability, which influenced attitudes. Under low-elaboration, vocal confidence directly influenced attitudes as a peripheral cue. Experiments 2 (N = 412) and 3 (N = 397) conceptually replicated the bias and cue effects in Experiment 1, using a 2 (elaboration: high vs. low) × 2 (vocal pitch: raised vs. lowered) between-participants factorial design. Vocal pitch influenced perceptions of speaker confidence as predicted. These studies demonstrate that changes in three vocal properties influence global perceptions of speaker confidence, influencing attitudes via different mediating processes moderated by amount of thought. Evaluation of alternative mediators in Experiments 2 and 3 failed to support these alternatives to global perceptions of speaker confidence.

The Role of Rape-Supportive Attitudes, Alcohol, and Sexual Arousal in Sexual (Mis)Perception: An Experimental Study

While sexual misperception does not irrevocably lead to sexual aggression, it remains a significant risk factor. The present study investigated the effects of rape-supportive attitudes, alcohol, and sexual arousal on sexual perception. We used a 2 × 2 between-participants factorial design to randomly assign 135 men from the general population to a condition with or without alcohol (blood alcohol concentration target of .08%) and to a condition with or without sexual arousal. Participants were asked to listen to an audiotape depicting a sexual interaction between a man and woman and to indicate if and when they believed the woman was no longer interested in having sex. Results, obtained through survival analyses, indicate that the effects of rape-supportive attitudes on sexual misperception are moderated by alcohol consumption. Alcohol appears to be an important situational factor for activating men’s implicit theories. Our study sheds new light on the role of knowledge structures in sexual perception: It identifies when, as well as suggesting how, rape-supportive attitudes may disturb sexual perception and ultimately lead to sexual misperception.

Combining self-affirmation and implementation intentions to reduce heavy episodic drinking in university students.

Studies testing the effects of self-affirmation on alcohol-related cognitions and behavior in university students have produced equivocal results. Because self-affirmation is a motivational technique (i.e., designed to reduce defensive processing) it may need to be supplemented with volitional techniques, such as forming if-then plans, to translate positive intentions into behavior. Participants (N = 348) were randomly assigned to conditions in a 2 (self-affirmation) × 2 (implementation intention) between-participants factorial design. Participants completed a self-affirmation task (i.e., values essay) or not, read a summary about the health risks of binge drinking (8/6 units for men/women), and then completed an implementation intention task (i.e., forming if-then plans) or not. Participants then completed measures of message derogation, perceived risk, and intention as well as alcohol consumption 1 week later. All main and interaction effects for self-affirmation were nonsignificant. In contrast, participants who formed implementation intentions (vs. not) reported drinking fewer units of alcohol and engaged in binge drinking less frequently at 1-week follow-up. Additional analyses revealed that affirming a social value attenuated the effect of self-affirmation on intention, but augmented the effect of implementation intentions on behavior. Overall, the findings provide additional evidence for the positive effects of implementation intentions but question the use of self-affirmation to reduce alcohol consumption in university students. (PsycINFO Database Record

Examining competing hypotheses for the effects of diagrams on recall for text.

Supplementing text-based learning materials with diagrams typically increases students' free recall and cued recall of the presented information. In the present experiments, we examined competing hypotheses for why this occurs. More specifically, although diagrams are visual, they also serve to repeat information from the text they accompany. Both visual presentation and repetition are known to aid students' recall of information. To examine to what extent diagrams aid recall because they are visual or repetitive (or both), we had college students in two experiments (n = 320) read a science text about how lightning storms develop before completing free-recall and cued-recall tests over the presented information. Between groups, we manipulated the format and repetition of target pieces of information in the study materials using a 2 (visual presentation of target information: diagrams present vs. diagrams absent) × 2 (repetition of target information: present vs. absent) between-participants factorial design. Repetition increased both the free recall and cued recall of target information, and this occurred regardless of whether that repetition was in the form of text or a diagram. In contrast, the visual presentation of information never aided free recall. Furthermore, visual presentation alone did not significantly aid cued recall when participants studied the materials once before the test (Experiment 1) but did when they studied the materials twice (Experiment 2). Taken together, the results of the present experiments demonstrate the important role of repetition (i.e., that diagrams repeat information from the text) over the visual nature of diagrams in producing the benefits of diagrams for recall.

Whose online reviews have the most influences on consumers in cultural offerings? Professional vs consumer commentators

Purpose – To improve the effectiveness of online reviews in the cultural industries, the purpose of this paper is to examine the effects of online cultural reviews of professional and consumer commentators on consumer responses toward elite and mass cultural offerings by drawing upon associative learning theory and social influence theory. Design/methodology/approach – This study used a 2 (cultural offerings: elite vs mass)×2 (commentators: professional vs consumer) between-participants factorial design to examine the proposed hypotheses. A total of 195 participants were randomly assigned to one of four experimental cells. Findings – The ANOVA results indicate that the credibility of online cultural reviews is significantly higher for professional commentators than for consumer commentators across both elite and mass cultural offerings. Furthermore, the results confirm that there is a significant cultural offering type by commentator interaction on a consumer's offering evaluation, overall attitude, and behavioral intention. Research limitations/implications – This study provides strong support for the congruence between cultural commentators and cultural offerings in online cultural reviews. The findings can also effectively explain the weak correlation between professional judgments and popular appeal. Practical implications – For better effectiveness of online cultural reviews, the findings recommend cultural marketers that the use of professional commentators is effective for elite cultural offerings, whereas the use of consumer commentators is effective for mass cultural offerings. Originality/value – This study proposes a useful dichotomy to classify cultural offerings as elite and mass. Meanwhile, this study is one of the first to examine the congruence between cultural offerings and cultural commentators in online reviews.

Retribution or restoration? Anglo–Australian's views towards domestic violence involving Muslim and Anglo–Australian victims and offenders

The current study explored how gender, group membership and different emotional reactions to the crime of domestic violence predict attitudes and endorsement of restorative or retributive justice practices. The experiment consisted of a 2 (victim group membership: Muslim- or Anglo–Australian)×2 (offender group membership: Muslim- or Anglo–Australian)×2 (Sex of participant) between-participants factorial design. Anglo–Australian participants (43 men; 50 women) were randomly assigned to one of the four manipulated conditions, and completed an online questionnaire that involved viewing a short video clip of a woman describing her experience as a domestic violence victim. Results revealed strong preferences for restorative justice in dealing with domestic violence, with women supporting this practice more than men. The crime was perceived as most severe and retribution was endorsed most strongly when the victim was Anglo–Australian (i.e. an in-group member). Intra-group violence was also perceived to be a greater breach of shared Australian values than inter-group (i.e. cross-cultural) domestic violence. Emotional reactions further predicted participants' responses, with hatred predicting stronger support of retributive ideals and sympathy for the victim predicting greater endorsement of restoration.

How do consumers react to physically larger models? Effects of model body size, weight control beliefs and product type on evaluations and body perceptions

The purpose of this article is to examine how a consumer's weight control beliefs (WCB), a female advertising model's body size (slim or large) and product type influence consumer evaluations and consumer body perceptions. The study uses an experiment of 371 consumers. The design of the experiment was a 2 (weight control belief: internal, external) X 2 (model size: larger sized, slim) X 2 (product type: weight controlling, non-weight controlling) between-participants factorial design. Results reveal two key contributions. First, larger sized models result in consumers feeling less pressure from society to be thin, viewing their actual shape as slimmer relative to viewing a slim model and wanting a thinner ideal body shape. Slim models result in the opposite effects. Second this research reveals a boundary condition for the extent to which endorser–product congruency theory can be generalized to endorsers of a larger body size. Results indicate that consumer WCB may be a useful variable to consider when marketers consider the use of larger models in advertising.

The Roles of Regulatory Focus and Medical Recommendation Avatars' Trustworthiness in Virtual Environment–Based E-Health

This study examined the influence of regulatory focus and medical recommendation avatars' trustworthiness in avatar-based e-health within 3D virtual environments (VEs). Drawing on Higgins's regulatory focus theory and the existing literature on self-construal, a 2 x 2 (regulatory focus: promotion vs. prevention by interdependent self-construal: low vs. high) between-participants factorial design experiment tested the moderating role of health consumers' interdependent self-construal in determining the effects of regulatory focus in VE-based e-health. Results showed an interaction effect of regulatory focus and interdependent self-construal such that VE users with a dominant interdependent self-construal indicated greater issue familiarity and involvement when exposed to a prevention-focused e-health intervention than when exposed to a promotion-focused e-health intervention, whereas the effects of regulatory focus on issue familiarity and involvement among users low in interdependent self-construal demonstrated the opposite pattern. A path analysis further revealed that VE users' evaluation of a medical recommendation avatar's trustworthiness mediated the effects regulatory focus had on their perceived informational and educational values of the health messages. Theoretical contributions and practical implications for VE-based e-health applications are discussed.