Bell Beaker Phenomenon Research Articles

Salt production by ignition during the prehistory in the Iberian Peninsula with special focus on the archaeological site of Espartinas (Ciempozuelos, Spain)

One of the prehistoric techniques of salt production consisted of using ceramic vessels, known as briquetage, for the artificial evaporation of salt water. This paper summarizes all the archaeological sites throughout the Iberinan Peninsula where briquetage has been described to date, with special focus on the well-studied archaeological site of Espartinas saltworks. At Espartinas we found the use of two different kinds of ceramics, which points to a two-step process also involving halfah or esparto grass, which may well have been used for transport or/and as an insulating layer between the vessels walls and the mass of salt to facilitate the extraction of whole salt cakes. Palaeoenvironmental conditions at Espartinas have also been described based on local and regional pollen records and compared with the dry conditions associated to the so-called “4.2 cal kyr BP abrupt climatic event”. Despite the reduced amount of radiocarbon dating, the briquetage appears have been present in the studied region from the Late Neolithic to at least the Bronze Age. However, we cannot discard the fact that it might have reached the early Roman period, when salt evaporation ponds replaced this laborious technique. Moreover, briquetage distribution has been compared with evaporite outcrops throughout the Iberian Peninsula and it has been observed a characteristic pattern with a preference for peripheral, near to coast regions, with the exception of from Aranjuez-Getafe lower-Miocene lacustrine evaporites in central Iberia. Briquetage spread also shows a marked correlation with sites characterized by the presence of Atlantic halberds the first true metal weapon ever made in Western Europe and part of the warrior panoply of Late Copper Age/Early Bronze Age elites. At least during this period, these findings suggest that briquetage was used to obtain solid salt cakes easily transportable to medium and large distances by Atlantic and intra-Iberian trade exchange networks, which confirms previous studies that associate Bell Beaker phenomenon with salt circulation.

The earliest Baltic amber in Western Europe

The occurrence of Baltic amber through Europe has traditionally been associated to the spread of the Bell Beaker culture during the 3rd millennium BC. In Iberia, this phenomenon is particularly noticeable in the southern half. Here we present an amber bead recovered in a Late Neolithic funerary cave (3634–3363 cal BC) from northeastern Iberia where more than 12 individuals had been buried. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy results of four samples revealed their complete resemblance with Baltic succinite reference spectra. Despite being a single bead, this finding provides the earliest evidence for the arrival of Baltic amber to the Mediterranean and Western Europe, before the Bell Beaker phenomenon and more than a millennium earlier than traditionally thought. This finding has implications for our understanding of early exchange networks of exotic materials, and their associated social structures.

Hunte 4: Re-validation of a Bell Beaker domestic site in the Dümmer region in northwestern Germany

Abstract One of the few areas of the central North European Plain with settlement structures of the Single Grave groups (SG) as well as the Bell Beaker (BB) phenomenon is the Dümmer region in northwestern Germany. This region is characterised by extensive wetlands on the southern border of the Northern Lowland and has been subject of several research projects on Mesolithic and Neolithic sites since the last century. Archaeological prospections in the 1940s led to the detection of a domestic site of the BB groups at the Hunte 4 site. In 2020, new research was carried out at this site, which, through the integration of archaeology, geophysics and palynology, identified a Late SG and BB site and reconstructed the surrounding landscape. In contrast to the Hunte 1 settlement with building structures 2.5 km to the south, which also shows SG and BB activities, the results of the investigations at Hunte 4 point to a temporary use of the site. Consequently, a settlement system can be reconstructed in the region of the Dümmer for the second half of the third millennium and at the beginning of the second millennium BCE, which consisted of at least one permanent settlement and at the minimum one temporarily used sites – several more could be presumed but have to yet be localised. At the same time, the Dümmer region marks the southern border of a settlement system in the central Northern European Plain which is characterised by less domestic site, less permanent settlement sites and buildings structures. This contrasts with the increasing number of known settlement sites in the surrounding regions of the central Northern European Plain and suggests a higher translocality of individuals and groups in this area.

Dětský lukostřelec a jeho „hračky“ z pohřebiště kultury zvoncovitých pohárů v Popůvkách

In Central Europe, the Bell Beaker phenomenon is inextricably linked to finds of archery tools equipment and with the first abundant occurrence of copper artefacts. Archery attributes and copper artefacts (mainly daggers and ornaments) are found in the wide area of Bell Beaker distribution, which enables a wide range of researchers to share and connect knowledge about these finds. These artefacts are mostly found in the graves of adult males (exceptionally females) and are referred to as symbols of belonging to archerwarriors, i.e. a group with special and significant status. Sometimes these artefacts also appear in children’s graves. However, children especially very young ones) could not perform the full role of archers and/or warriors, so we interpret the presence of archery equipment and daggers as a symbol of unspecified inheritance. One such child’s grave was also discovered during the recent excavation of the Bell Beaker burial ground in Popůvky near Brno, Czech Republic. In the presented paper, this grave is presented in connection with the hitherto rather neglected issue of the position of children at the end of the Moravian Eneolithic period. Also, potential relations with other deceased individuals at Popůvky cemetery will be discussed.

Potters’ Mobility Contributed to the Emergence of the Bell Beaker Phenomenon in Third Millennium BCE Alpine Switzerland: A Diachronic Technology Study of Domestic and Funerary Traditions

Abstract The spread of the Bell Beaker phenomenon across Europe is still strongly debated today. Small-scale technological studies investigating its integration in local contexts remain rare, even though these are crucial to observing disruptions in traditions. In this article, we studied the ceramic technology of Final Neolithic, Bell Beaker period, and Early Bronze Age settlements of the Upper Rhône valley in Switzerland (3300–1600 BCE). We reconstructed and compared their pottery traditions to those from the contemporaneous megalithic necropolis of Sion ‘Petit-Chasseur’, a major funerary and ritual site located in the centre of the valley. Our findings showed that the Bell Beaker period saw an abundance of simultaneous technical changes, mirroring disruptions identified by other fields, and confirmed that this cultural phenomenon did not blend seamlessly with the local context. More importantly, they revealed the role played by human mobility, with the arrival of potters shortly after 2500 BCE.

The Broad-Spectrum Revolution at 50: Increasing dietary diversity reflects the heterogeneity of domesticated landscapes

The area of North-East Poland was in prehistory, and still is today, an area with easy access to amber as a raw material, as is evidenced in part by numerous Late Neolithic (3rd millennium) amber workshops located in the Gulf of Gdańsk and Żuławy Wiślane (Vistula Fens). Given this fact, it is surprising that only a few finished amber products have been recovered from this area. Among them are unique ornaments from the Late Neolithic sites Ząbie 10, Supraśl 3, and Supraśl 6. The preliminary analysis showed that these amber artifacts differ from the products manufactured by local groups located in the territory of modern Poland. The selected artifacts were subjected to in-depth stylistic and technological analysis to identify their provenance, taking also into consideration the type of raw material used in their production by means of FTIR analysis. Stylistic analysis showed that several specimens have analogies amongst the amber beads known from the Bell Beaker phenomenon. However, most of the beads under study are unique, and there are no analogies among any Neolithic ornaments in Europe. In addition, it was found that the specimens from Ząbie 10, Supraśl 3, and Supraśl 6 had perforations drilled with a metal tool, not a flint drill bit, which was previously unheard of in this part of Europe. The FTIR analysis revealed the use of local amber, including its different varieties i.e., succinite, gedano-succinite and gedanite. It also revealed its varying state of preservation. This may be useful for exploring the environmental context in which these artifacts were deposited.

Bell Beaker Burial Customs in North-western France

Ever since large amounts of Bell Beaker complex pottery were first discovered within megalithic graves in north-western France, the Bell Beaker has been tightly tied to the ‘megalithic phenomenon’. However, the fact of construction of these various kinds of megalithic monument during the Middle to Late Neolithic pre-dates the users of Bell Beakers. While this is a case of the re-use of older funerary monuments, it is assumed that Bell Beaker funerary practices witness a shift from Neolithic collective burial to individual inhumation. For a long time finds from the megalithic graves have constituted our main source of information on the Bell Beaker complex in north-western France. However, these ‘artificial caves’ have biased our understanding of the Bell Beaker complex and, in particular, of its funerary practices. The re-assessment of old finds and recent large-scale excavations have brought to light a large number of new sites, revealing a greater diversity in Bell Beaker funerary practices in the region than had been perceived previously. In the first part, we set the broader picture, stating what we know or can say about funerary practices during the Recent and Late Neolithic (3350–2550 bc), before the beginning of the Bell Beaker phenomenon. We then discuss the different Bell Beaker burial practices (2550–1950 bc), their chronological and regional variabilities, and, above all, the research biases that might have affected their understanding.

Provenance studies on Late Neolithic amber ornaments from North-East Poland

The area of North-East Poland was in prehistory, and still is today, an area with easy access to amber as a raw material, as is evidenced in part by numerous Late Neolithic (3rd millennium) amber workshops located in the Gulf of Gdańsk and Żuławy Wiślane (Vistula Fens). Given this fact, it is surprising that only a few finished amber products have been recovered from this area. Among them are unique ornaments from the Late Neolithic sites Ząbie 10, Supraśl 3, and Supraśl 6. The preliminary analysis showed that these amber artifacts differ from the products manufactured by local groups located in the territory of modern Poland. The selected artifacts were subjected to in-depth stylistic and technological analysis to identify their provenance, taking also into consideration the type of raw material used in their production by means of FTIR analysis. Stylistic analysis showed that several specimens have analogies amongst the amber beads known from the Bell Beaker phenomenon. However, most of the beads under study are unique, and there are no analogies among any Neolithic ornaments in Europe. In addition, it was found that the specimens from Ząbie 10, Supraśl 3, and Supraśl 6 had perforations drilled with a metal tool, not a flint drill bit, which was previously unheard of in this part of Europe. The FTIR analysis revealed the use of local amber, including its different varieties i.e., succinite, gedano-succinite and gedanite. It also revealed its varying state of preservation. This may be useful for exploring the environmental context in which these artifacts were deposited.

Genomes from Verteba cave suggest diversity within the Trypillians in Ukraine

The transition to agriculture occurred relatively late in Eastern Europe, leading researchers to debate whether it was a gradual, interactive process or a colonisation event. In the forest and forest-steppe regions of Ukraine, farming appeared during the fifth millennium BCE, associated with the Cucuteni-Trypillia cultural complex (CTCC, ~ 5000–3000 BCE). Across Europe, the Neolithisation process was highly variable across space and over time. Here, we investigate the population dynamics of early agriculturalists from the eastern forest-steppe region based on the analyses of 20 ancient genomes from the site of Verteba Cave (3935–825 cal BCE). Results reveal that the CTCC individuals’ ancestry is related to both western hunter-gatherers and Near Eastern farmers, has no local ancestry associated with Ukrainian Neolithic hunter-gatherers and has steppe ancestry. An Early Bronze Age individual has an ancestry profile related to the Yamnaya expansions but with 20% of ancestry related to the other Trypillian individuals, which suggests admixture between the Trypillians and the incoming populations carrying steppe-related ancestry. A Late Bronze Age individual dated to 980–825 cal BCE has a genetic profile indicating affinity to Beaker-related populations, detected close to 1000 years after the end of the Bell Beaker phenomenon during the third millennium BCE.

Reflection of Advanced Technologies and Social Status Through the Grave Inventory of the Bell Beaker Phenomenon. (Grave of a Metallurgist from Central Moravia)

Reflection of Advanced Technologies and Social Status Through the Grave Inventory of the Bell Beaker Phenomenon. (Grave of a Metallurgist from Central Moravia)

Sex/gender system and social hierarchization in Bell Beaker burials from Iberia

Queer theory has always questioned the uncritical transposition into the past of the categories linked with the heteronormative sex/gender system of the contemporary Western society. The binary and opposed division into two sexes and genders, the heterosexuality as a naturalized ideal or the nuclear family, are just some examples. The Bell Beaker phenomenon, despite being one of the most discussed topics in archaeology, has never been approached from this perspective. Therefore, in this study, 70 individuals with associated Bell Beaker grave-goods buried in 37 tombs from the main territories of Iberia have been analysed. Through an exhaustive statistical analysis of the archaeological and osteological data set, the existence of some clear differences among social adults (>16 years old) can be identified in terms of social ranking and sex/gender markers, within a complex and non-binary structure. Additionally, a fluid or non-existing sex/gender attribution is the most likely for non-adults younger than 15 years old.

Bell Beaker Settlement of Europe: the Bell Beaker phenomenon from a domestic perspective. Edited by Alex M Gibson. 275mm. Pp xxii + 370, 192 figs (some col), 14 tabs. Prehistoric Society Research Paper 9, Oxbow Books, Oxford and Philadelphia, 2019. isbn 9781789251241. £35 (hbk).

Bell Beaker Settlement of Europe: the Bell Beaker phenomenon from a domestic perspective. Edited by Alex M Gibson. 275mm. Pp xxii + 370, 192 figs (some col), 14 tabs. Prehistoric Society Research Paper 9, Oxbow Books, Oxford and Philadelphia, 2019. isbn 9781789251241. £35 (hbk). - Volume 101

Late Neolithic and Chalcolithic maritime resilience? The 4.2 ka BP event and its implications for environments and societies in Northwest Europe

This paper deals with prehistoric communities at the end of the 3rd millennium BC in Northwest Europe in relation to the 4.2 ka BP climatic event. In particular, the question of the resilience of these communities to climatic change will be studied here by comparing various climatic records and analysing specific archaeological parameters for social and cultural change. These parameters include the duration and intensity of settlement occupation, the variability of subsistence activities (e.g. cereal cultivation, animal husbandry, hunting, fishing, and gathering) and the connectedness of communities within exchange networks. Rather than answering the often-asked yes/no question with regard to human–environment relations, our research asks what effect resulted from the 4.2 ka BP climatic event, and, from the perspective of resilience, how did communities adopt to these changes in their practices and cultural choices during the later 3rd millennium BC.In short, we maintain that climate change took place at the end of the 3rd millennium BC, but the changes in humidity and temperature with their effects on vegetation were probably regionally varied across Northwest Europe. We also observe that the studied communities developed differently during the second half of the 3rd millennium BC. On the one hand, we identify new food storage and house building techniques in the Low Countries and Schleswig-Holstein and, on the other hand, substantiate population decrease on the Orkney Islands around 2300 BC. Finally, we note a development of the Bell Beaker phenomenon into an Early Bronze Age maritory of connected communities across the North Sea, in which these communities expressed their resilience to climate change.

The story of Surmir, the archer, Gothic architecture and the Bell Beaker phenomenon

The ways in which the “Bell Beaker package” spread across most of Central and Western Europe may have been different from region to region. Prestigious artefacts circulated through exchange, migration by infiltration, interregional marriages and mobility of individuals. This, however, does not explain why people from geographically and culturally distant regions suddenly shared a distinct uniform style and symbolic system. The new symbolic system and the package of significant artefacts helped to reinforce collective identity and maintained a range of spiritual activities. Within these individualised funerary practices people emphasised communication with their ancestors and a display of their social status, as well as confirmation of social hierarchy and reinforcement of a genealogical system of hereditary wealth of individuals and families. I believe that this unification and rapid spread of shared uniformity occurred as a result of a common ideology that used the new assemblage of the Bell Beaker package as a formal expression of symbolical and cosmological unity.

The story of Surmir, the archer, Gothic architecture and the Bell Beaker phenomenon

Les façons dont le « package campaniforme » a été diffusé dans la majeure partie de l’Europe centrale et occidentale ont probablement été différentes d’une région à l’autre. Des artefacts prestigieux circulaient par échange, migration par infiltration, mariages interrégionaux et mobilité d’individus. Mais cela n’explique pas pourquoi des personnes qui se trouvaient dans des régions géographiquement et culturellement éloignées ont subitement partagé un style et un système symbolique uniformes. Le nouveau système symbolique ainsi que le set d’artefacts significatifs contribuaient à renforcer l’identité collective en maintenant une série d’activités spirituelles. Au sein de pratiques funéraires individualisées, l’importance de la communication avec les ancêtres est soulignée, le statut social des défunts mis en lumière, au même titre qu’une hiérarchie sociale, se trouve confirmée et un système de descendance basé sur la richesse héréditaire d’individus et de familles est renforcé. Cet article soutient l’hypothèse selon laquelle cette uniformisation et la diffusion rapide d’une uniformité commune surviennent à ce moment-là à cause d’une idéologie commune qui se servait du nouvel ensemble du set campaniforme en tant qu’expression officielle d’une unité symbolique et cosmologique.

Échelles spatiales, ruptures, continuités, lacunes : quelques remarques sur les données archéologiques attribuées au Campaniforme en France et son insertion dans les séquences chrono‑culturelles établies

The Bell Beaker is characterized by a very unbalanced spatial distribution and a very strong heterogeneity of data. Hiatuses and discontinuities are therefore an important part of the observations. This heterogeneity is reinforced by the technological variability of the productions, ceramic ware in particular. By examining a North/South transect over the eastern part of the French territory, from Lorraine to Provence, one can distinguish in these regions different scenarios of insertion of the Bell Beaker during the end of the 3rd millennium. The examination of these scenarios, by integrating the spatial distribution of the sites and the diffusion of some material culture items, allows us to raise certain precise questions. The deconstruction of the “Bell Beaker Phenomenon” is more necessary than ever and several paths are proposed.

Autour du gobelet maritime : les vases à cordon, gobelets linéaires et productions épicampaniformes du nord‑ouest de la France

The definition of a ceramic production is a major challenge in archaeology, it must regularly be interrogated and updated. The case of the Bell Beaker phenomenon in Northwestern France give an obvious example: if observations focus on a typological study according to a bibliographical approach then the proposed classification show a relative monotony of the decorations on ceramic productions. A technological approach allows to go deeper into the question and go beyond this limit by bringing new elements to the debate: decoration techniques, firing process or building techniques to name only the most important criteria. Technological approach enriches the debate, allowing to decompose the different stream of influence that may have been observed on a vase or a ceramic tradition. It thus offers a study protocol capable of identifying more clearly the technical transfers, influences, copies and borrowings that punctuate the evolution of ceramic styles. We propose to combine typological, technological analysis and context review to formalize or redefine certain ceramic productions of northwestern France with diffuse boundaries dated to the second half of the third millennium. We will focus in particular on three types of vases: the vases à cordon, linear and linear beaker with grups of line and finally “épicampaniforme” vases. Questioning these productions makes it possible to weigh the various underlying social and economic implications of theses productions, to compare them with others well-identified productions such as maritime beakers or vases belonging to the dotted-geometric style. This will ultimately allow us to discuss the relationships between productions, and the validity of certain key concepts of Campaniforme.

Los emplazamientos topográficos de poblados durante el Tercer Milenio A.C. en la Europa Occidental: Líneas comparadas entre Cataluña y la Provenza

In several European regions, an abrupt change in settlement pattern dynamics was thought for years to be contemporaneous with the spread of the Bell Beaker phenomenon. The aim of this paper is to propose a comparative analysis on topographic locations based on third millennium BCE settlements in two nearby Mediterranean regions: Catalonia (northeast Spain) and Provence (southeast France). These domestic establishments contain a significant amount of Bell Beaker pottery, amongst other artefacts, which balances its classical renown in sepulchral environment. Questioning the presence of these specific remains in these domestic deposits, the Bell Beaker overlapping the various local traditions, still appears as a crucial issue. The study reveals some changing trends in settlement choices for the Late Neolithic/Early Bronze Age transition in these two North West Mediterranean regions, but underlines at the same time, the lack of reliable classification frameworks to produce any historical discourse about the spread of Bell Beakers.Keywords: Topographic locations, late third millennium BCE, Bell Beaker, Catalonia, Provence

4000 years of human dietary evolution in central Germany, from the first farmers to the first elites.

Investigation of human diet during the Neolithic has often been limited to a few archaeological cultures or single sites. In order to provide insight into the development of human food consumption and husbandry strategies, our study explores bone collagen carbon and nitrogen isotope data from 466 human and 105 faunal individuals from 26 sites in central Germany. It is the most extensive data set to date from an enclosed geographic microregion, covering 4,000 years of agricultural history from the Early Neolithic to the Early Bronze Age. The animal data show that a variety of pastures and dietary resources were explored, but that these changed remarkably little over time. In the human δ15N however we found a significant increase with time across the different archaeological cultures. This trend could be observed in all time periods and archaeological cultures (Bell Beaker phenomenon excluded), even on continuously populated sites. Since there was no such trend in faunal isotope values, we were able largely to exclude manuring as the cause of this effect. Based on the rich interdisciplinary data from this region and archaeological period we can argue that meat consumption increased with the increasing duration of farming subsistence.In δ13C, we could not observe any clear increasing or decreasing trends during the archaeological time periods, either for humans or for animals, which would have suggested significant changes in the environment and landscape use. We discovered sex-related dietary differences, with males of all archaeological periods having higher δ15N values than females, and an age-related increasing consumption of animal protein. An initial decrease of δ15N-values at the age of 1–2 years reveals partial weaning, while complete weaning took place at the age of 3–4 years.

Shape matters: assessing regional variation of Bell Beaker projectile points in Central Europe using geometric morphometrics

Despite the large-scale expansion of Bell Beaker phenomenon, there is a tension between the normative Bell Beaker material culture categories and their local objectification in the form of real artefacts. Stone projectile points provide an opportunity to evaluate how much was the general category of such a point influenced by regional and local factors. The aim of this paper is to explore shape and size variation of Central European Bell Beaker projectile points from Moravia (Czech Republic) to elucidate factors responsible for this variation. The sample consists of 194 projectile points from 54 Central European Bell Beaker sites (2500–2300/2200 BC) distributed in Morava River catchment. The size and shape of projectile points were studied by landmark-based geometric morphometrics and expressed as shape groups, which have been assessed in terms of their spatial distribution, raw material, and reutilization. Although several shape categories of points were identified, there is a strong degree of uniformity in the research sample. The dominant shape category (75.4 % of points) was pervasive across geographic space and was not significantly affected either by raw material or reutilization. A lower degree of reutilization of points is interpreted as a consequence of a non-utilitarian role of projectile points, which represented a critical component of Bell Beaker mortuary practices.