Adolescent Behavior Research Articles

The Role of Social Media in Influencing Juvenile Delinquent Behavior

This research project examines the influence of social media on juvenile criminal behaviour. The popularisation and rapid development of the Internet and social media have had a significant impact on the lifestyles, social patterns and psychological states of adolescents. This research project examines the potential influence of social media on adolescent behaviour from a multi-disciplinary perspective, encompassing the fields of psychology, sociology and communication. The research methodology involved a comprehensive literature review and a case study, which were used to collate and analyse a substantial corpus of data and information pertaining to the relationship between social media use and juvenile delinquency. It is possible that social media may precipitate juvenile delinquency, whilst simultaneously offering a forum for the exchange of information, emotional support and social interaction. The dissemination of misinformation, the occurrence of cyberbullying, and the prevalence of privacy breaches on social media may have a deleterious effect on juveniles, thereby increasing their susceptibility to engage in delinquent activities. Furthermore, this paper puts forth recommendations for the effective governance of social media platforms in a business context, with the objective of preventing and reducing juvenile delinquency.

The Relationship Between Exploitative Show Viewing Habits and Aggressive Behavior in Adolescents

Background: Exploitation is a form of crime and violence that can jeopardize a child’s future. Adolescents who frequently watch exploitative content are more likely to exhibit aggressive tendencies and may become desensitized to violence in daily life, leading to both physical and psychological consequences. This study aims to explore the relationship between the habit of watching exploitative shows and aggressive behavior among adolescents. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted among 76 adolescents in Aceh, Indonesia. Data on demographics, viewing habits of exploitative shows, and aggressive behavior were collected using a researcher-modified questionnaire. Results: Over half of the respondents were female (57.9%), with the majority categorized as heavy viewers of exploitative shows (69.7%), and aggressive behavior identified in 59.2% of participants. A significant association was found between the habit of watching exploitative shows and aggressive behavior (p-value = 0.002, OR = 5.790). Conclusion: Adolescents who frequently consume exploitative content struggle to regulate their behavior effectively, as the dependency on such shows fosters aggression. Adequate supervision of adolescents is crucial, and it is recommended that social media platforms prioritize broadcasting educational content to promote positive personality development.

Unveiling the Heterogeneity of Sensation Seeking and Collectivism Development in Chinese Adolescents.

Understanding the impact of sociocultural tendencies on the personality development of adolescents represents a critical theoretical and practical issue in the field of adolescent development. In the context of China's collectivist culture, the developmental trajectories of and the interaction between sensation seeking and collectivism among adolescents remain largely unknown. This study examined the heterogeneity of the joint growth patterns of sensation seeking and collectivism and their interactions across distinct latent trajectory classes. We collected 3-year longitudinal data from 20,225 Chinese adolescents (60.45% male). We identified four unique joint developmental trajectories. Contrary to the traditional view that collectivism inherently suppresses sensation seeking, most adolescents (89.52%) exhibited synchronous growth of both dimensions. The development of adolescent sensation-seeking behavior was significantly influenced by their alignment with societal contribution-driven happiness and an unquestioning prioritization of collective interests. Our findings underscore the nuanced interplay and commonalities between sensation seeking and collectivism development among Chinese adolescents.

Genetic, Neurobiological, and Social Determinants of Adolescent Behavior: Risk Pathways and Protective Mechanisms

Adolescence is a critical period, marked by heightened risk-taking and experimentation, which are significantly influenced by the interactions between genetic predisposition and environmental contexts [...]

Body Image and Self-Harming Behaviors in Adolescents: The Mediating Effect of Somatization.

In the present investigation, we used structural equation modeling with 251 adolescents to reveal, through path analyses, the degree to which somatization might mediate the relationships between body image and self-harming behaviors. After controlling for the effects of (a) age, (b) gender, and (c) having previously visited a psychologist, we observed that somatization fully mediated both the relationship between body image and self-harming behaviors and the relationship between gender and self-harming behaviors. These results suggest that having a less satisfied relationship with the body or a more negative body image is closely related to a somatic experience of greater psychological suffering, which could lead, in turn, to a more active expression of this suffering through self-harming behaviors.

Impact of internet addiction and gaming disorder on body weight in children and adolescents: A systematic review.

Internet use and gaming have increased in daily life. Internet addiction has not been recognised in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition or 11th Revision of International Classification of Diseases despite gaming addiction having been listed since 2013. Previous studies have shown an association between internet use and weight gain or disordered eating patterns in the general population, however none have addressed this association in a paediatric population. The aim of this study is to investigate the relationship between internet addiction or gaming addiction and weight in children and adolescents under 18 years of age. A systematic search of electronic databases was conducted, and articles were screened for relevance. The Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) 3critical appraisal tool was used to assess quality of studies. Due to heterogeneity of the studies, a meta-analysis could not be performed, thus a narrative summary was performed with the results summarised and tabulated. Of 8114 initial articles identified, we included 14 studies. The review produced inconsistent results, with three of the 14 studies demonstrating no statistically significant relationship between internet and/or gaming addiction and obesity. The remaining 11 studies showed a statistically significant positive association. One study demonstrated that those who are underweight as well as overweight and obese were more likely to have problematic internet use. Four articles demonstrated increased rates of poor nutritional habits, poor eating patterns and weight control behaviour in children and adolescents with internet addiction or gaming disorder. Another study showed no statistically significant association between internet addiction and disordered eating or eating disorder. Most of the available studies revealed increased rates of obesity in children and adolescents with internet addiction or gaming disorder, with poor patterns of eating. Clearer definitions and consistent use of terminology are required to enable more robust research in this field.

Impact of Atopic Dermatitis on Adolescents and Families: A Mixed-Method Systematic Review.

To summarise the evidence regarding the impact of atopic dermatitis on adolescents and their families as well as their healthcare needs and to propose a nursing care plan based on the findings. Mixed-method systematic review. Twenty-four studies were included, of which 19 were quantitative and 5 were qualitative. The quality of the studies was assessed using the Mixed Methods Assessment Tool. The synthesis method used was data-driven convergent synthesis design. A systematic search was carried out in CINAHL, Embase, MEDLINE, PsycInfo and Web of Science without language restrictions from 1 January 2013 to 30 April 2023. The quality of life of adolescents with atopic dermatitis and their families are impaired. The more the severity of the condition, the greater the impact for them and their families. Atopic dermatitis impacts adolescents' sleep (due to itching), behaviour, mental well-being, social and school life. Likewise, parents' sleep, free time, interpersonal relationships and work life are affected by caring for their adolescents. Adolescents and their families encounter numerous challenges managing and living with atopic dermatitis on a daily basis. The condition has a widespread impact on adolescents and parents' quality of life across home, work and school settings. In the family, there was also an alteration in the functioning and relationships between its members. This review reveals the burden of atopic dermatitis for adolescents and families and the need for comprehensive support. Greater awareness among healthcare professionals of the impacts may help promote an evidence-based approach that supports the whole family. Based on these findings, we propose a nursing care plan based on the NANDA taxonomy to promote better healthcare provision for adolescents and families. This review adheres to PRISMA guidelines. No patient or public contribution. CRD42023435352.

THE IMPORTANCE OF FOOD LITERACY AMONG ADOLESCENTS BETWEEN JUNK FOOD AND REAL FOOD

Adolescents is a person who is in between the ages of 10 and 19. According to the Regulation of the Minister of Health Number 25 of 2014, adolescents are Age group 10 years to age 18 years old. Literally, junk food is interpreted as garbage food or non-nutritious food. The term means indicating foods that are considered to have no nutritional value for the body In this study, the research design used is qualitative descriptive and the power used is secondary cross-sectional analysis The sample is only 30 people, namely students from Medan State University and random Senior High Schools, aged 18-23. From field data with a total of 30 respondents, 25 (82%) teenagers like fast food or junk food and 5 (18%) teenagers do not like junk food. This systematic review investigated the relationship between food literacy and junk food consumption. Existing survey results of the 30 adolescents, 60% were female and 40% were male. With an age range of 18-20, there are 22 people, 73.3% and ages 21-23, there are 8 people, 26.7%. Things that influence adolescent habits are adolescent behavior in eating junk food as follows, Knowledge (40%), Influence of peers (30%),Place (13,3%),Fast and practical (10%),Taste (6,7%)Many teenagers do not understand this food literacy, of course, it must be done correctly. Food literacy is the intelligence of teenagers in choosing to process and serve food that is in accordance with the needs of their bodies or in this case in accordance with the existing nutrition so that what is needed is truly in accordance with what is needed

HEALTH EDUCATION ABOUT FREE SEX FOR ADOLESCENTS AT SMK SETYA BHAKTI 2 AND SMK 16 EAST JAKARTA

Background: Adolescence is an important transitional period due to excessive curiosity. Adolescents' curiosity about sexual life is increasing along with the information on social media. The problem of premarital sexual behavior in adolescents is very important to prevent because it can lead to early pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases. Objective: This activity aims to increase knowledge about the impact of premarital sexual behavior and its prevention on students of SMK Setya Bhakti 2 and SMK 16 East Jakarta. Method: Community service activities began with data collection at schools in the East Jakarta area, then providing direct education to grade XII students. All participants were given a pre-test and post-test as an evaluation. Results: The activity was held on February 16 2024, attended by 38 students of SMK Setya Bhakti 2 and 40 students of SMK 16 East Jakarta. The average age of participants was 17-18 years. More than fifty percent participants had poor knowledge regarding free sex (61.5%), then increased to be good knowledge by 77.0%. Conclusion: Premarital sexual education for grade XII students can increase their knowledge so that adolescents can avoid the dangers of free sexual behavior.

The role of childhood maltreatment and mental health disorders on suicidal behaviour in adolescents

BackgroundSuicide stands as a grave and pressing public health concern, ranking among the foremost causes of death in the youth demographics. While childhood maltreatment (CM) and mental disorders have garnered substantial attention as risk factors for suicide, there remains an enigmatic aspect concerning how these two elements interact, influencing the nature of suicidal ideation and suicidal behaviour, and the transition between them. ObjectiveThis study endeavours to shed light on the intricate interplay between CM, mental disorders, and suicide. Participants and settingWe gathered data from 289 adolescents aged 12–17 (87.2 % female) drawn from eight different hospitals across Spain, all of whom had attempted suicide within the past 10 days. MethodsWe assessed suicidal ideation severity and intensity, suicidal behaviour by attempts using the C-SSRS, and the presence of CM using CTQ and identified concurrent mental disorders according to the MINI. Regression analysis and moderation analysis were conducted by PROCESS macro. ResultsModeration analysis revealed that higher scores of CM were associated with a higher number of suicide attempts with the presence of a mental disorder. Additionally, we found that those with higher scores of CM reported less severe characteristics of suicidal ideation, when presenting along with an anxiety disorder. ConclusionsThese findings revealed CM increased risk of suicidal behaviour among young individuals. Additionally, the results suggest that adolescents with CM and anxiety disorder might under-report suicidal ideation. Hence, these findings offer a potential key to identifying and preventing suicide risk among young individuals.

Coparenting perceptions of (Grand)parents and associations with demographic characteristics and early adolescent problem behavior in China

Prior studies on coparenting have primarily focused on mothers and fathers, neglecting coparenting dynamics in multi-generational families. This study aimed to investigate coparenting perceptions among mothers, fathers and grandparents, and explore the associations between the coparenting relationship and adolescent problem behavior, as well as demographic characteristics. The sample included 1163 families with children aged 10–13 years. Mothers ( n = 997) and fathers ( n = 863) provided ratings of their coparenting relationship toward their partners and one grandparent, while grandparents ( n = 249) reported on the coparenting relationship with mothers. Results showed that compared to mothers, fathers reported more undermining of their own parenting by their partner. They were more supportive of their partner’s parenting and more positive about the division of labor. Fathers rated the overall coparenting relationship more positively than mothers, as indicated by the General Coparenting Scale. Notably, grandparents reported significantly more positive coparenting relations with mothers than mothers’ reports of coparenting with grandparents, expressing affirmation of parental competency and alignment with parenting practices. More positive coparenting was associated with less problem behaviors, which was true for coparenting across parents and grandparents. Furthermore, older adolescent age and higher socioeconomic status were significantly correlated with increased coparenting agreement and closeness. Maternal and paternal grandmothers did not differ in their ratings of the coparenting relationship with the child’s mother. These findings underscore the significance of recognizing differential perceptions among family members regarding coparenting behaviors, providing valuable insights for tailoring specific recommendations to enhance coparenting quality within diverse families.

Loneliness in Adolescents with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

Introduction: Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder is a disorder of children’s growth and development with neurodevelopmental disorders characterized by symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. ADHD in children can persist into adolescence in about 2.6% of the general population. About more than half of people with ADHD experience loneliness, a condition that is often not reported by patients but is evident in the negative emotions and behaviors they display. To explain the risk factors and impact of loneliness in adolescents with ADHD. Methods: Literature review. Results: The use of gadgets in today’s digital era increases the risk of increasing internet usage so that more contact is made online, which causes obstacles for adolescents in fostering social relationships and an increased risk of loneliness. Adolescents with ADHD have a negative assessment of themselves; they feel useless, lack confidence, and lack intelligence when compared to their peers. Economically, low-income family conditions and inappropriate parenting increase the risk of loneliness in ADHD adolescents. Adequate treatment will cause it to develop into other mental disorders such as anxiety, depression, defiant attitude disorder, and adolescent behavior disorder. Conclusions: Adolescents with ADHD are prone to experiencing loneliness. Parenting problems, family socioeconomics, past trauma, bullying, and several internal factors such as low self-confidence, insecurity, low adaptability, and lack of emotional control can cause loneliness. Keywords: ADHD, Adolescents, Loneliness, Mental Health, Psychological Well-Being

Validity of Cognitive Disengagement Syndrome with Mother and Father Ratings of Brazilian Children: Replication of Northern Hemisphere Findings in South America.

Although the Child and Adolescent Behavior Inventory (CABI) cognitive disengagement syndrome (CDS) scale has demonstrated validity relative to the CABI attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder-inattention (ADHD-IN) scale with parent ratings of youth from North America, Europe, East Asia, and Central Asia, no study has evaluated the validity of the 15 symptom CDS scale with children from South America. Our purpose was to examine for the first time the validity of the CABI CDS scale with Brazilian children. Latent variable modeling procedures were used to examine the validity of CDS scores. Mothers and fathers completed measures of CDS, ADHD-IN, ADHD-hyperactivity/impulsivity (HI), anxiety, depression, and academic impairment on 366 Brazilian children (Mage = 8.64, SDage = 1.39, 53.3% females). First, the CDS symptoms showed strong internal validity with the ADHD-IN symptoms. Second, within and across sources, ADHD-IN showed stronger first-order and unique associations than CDS with ADHD-HI, whereas CDS, especially across sources, showed stronger first-order and unique associations than ADHD-IN with anxiety and depression. CDS and ADHD-IN were similarly associated with academic impairment. This study is the first to support the validity of CABI CDS scores with Brazilian children, thus replicating the findings in North America, Europe, East Asia, and the Central Asia in South America.

Suicidal Ideation in Adolescents and Young Adults: The Role of Defeat, Entrapment, and Depressive Symptoms—From a Systematic Review to a Tentative Theoretical Model

Suicide stands as one of the leading causes of non-accidental death among adolescents and young adults. The Integrated Motivational–Volitional Model (IMV) of suicidal behavior identifies feelings of defeat and entrapment as pivotal factors in the complex dynamics underlying suicidal behaviors. Additionally, depressive symptomatology plays a crucial role in the development of these behaviors. The aim of this work was to provide a systematic review of the scientific literature on the association of three risk factors—entrapment, defeat, and depressive symptomatology—with suicidal ideation in the adolescent and young adult population and to test a tentative theoretical model. The databases used were PubMed, Web of Science, and ProQuest. Primary studies were selected that examined the role of entrapment, defeat, and depressive symptomatology in suicidal ideation among adolescents and young adults (ages 10–35). Additionally, a model based on structural equation modeling was analyzed to assess the relationships between entrapment, defeat, and depressive symptomatology and suicidal ideation. Eleven studies met the established inclusion criteria. The results showed defeat and entrapment to be associated with depressive symptomatology and suicidal ideation, regardless of the country studied. Additionally, the model indicates that entrapment and defeat lead to depressive symptomatology, which in turn contributes to the occurrence of suicidal ideation. These findings suggest that defeat and entrapment could be universal factors in explaining suicidal behavior in adolescents and young adults. Consequently, the results of this work may contribute to the development of strategies for preventing suicidal ideation in this population.

Relationships Among Soda and Energy Drink Consumption, Substance Use, Mental Health and Risk-Taking Behavior in Adolescents

Background/Objectives: Energy drink (ED) use is increasing among children and adolescents, but little is known about the impacts on health, including substance use and mental health. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between soda and ED consumption and substance use, mental health, and risk taking in a nationally representative sample of high school students. Methods: We used data from the 2019 Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System (YRBS) from New Jersey, Montana, and Florida to assess these relationships using binary and multinomial regression analyses to determine odds ratios, comparing non-consumers with daily consumers. The sample was 10,548 adolescents (51.6% female) between the ages of 13–19 years. Results: Daily soda and ED consumption were associated with greater odds of substance use (OR(95% CI): 5.8 (3.7, 6.9)/10.2 (6.4, 16.3)), poorer mental health (OR(95% CI): 2.6 (1.3, 4.8)/1.8 (1.2, 2.8), and higher odds of eating fast food (OR(95% CI): 17.2 (8.9, 33)/10.6 (5.6, 19.9). These effects were moderated by sex. Conclusions: These findings suggest that soda and ED use are associated with greater risk taking among adolescents and that these relationships are moderated by sex. Future studies should determine the directionality of these relationships and examine the impact of reduced soda and ED consumption on health behaviors in children and adolescents.

Enhancing English Proficiency in Korean Schoolchildren with Problematic Behaviors: Efficacy of Digital Game-Based Learning.

Objective: Language learning through computer games has been suggested to enhance language abilities compared with traditional learning methods. Training in language skills may also improve self-control and reduce problematic behaviors in children and adolescents. We hypothesized that computer game-based language training could be more effective than classical language instruction. Furthermore, we propose that the enhanced language skills obtained through computer game language training could correspond with improvements in problematic behaviors within this group. Materials and Methods: This was an 8-week crossover trial consisting of 4 weeks of gaming rounds and 4 weeks of control rounds for two groups. Wise-Ax English is a casual digital game developed for English vocabulary education targeting Korean children. The game incorporates 500 English words selected from a pool designated by the Korean Ministry of Education. The study included 38 Korean students. At the 4-week and 8-week marks, all students were assessed with English competency tests. Results: Over 80% of the participants expressed satisfaction with the digital game-based English education, noting significant improvements in their English abilities compared with those achieved using traditional English classes. During the gaming rounds, children with problematic behaviors demonstrated improvement in test scores relative to their peers without such behaviors. Conclusion: The educational game Wise-Ax English can effectively enhance English language skills among Korean elementary school students. Notably, the effectiveness of Wise-Ax English was more pronounced in students exhibiting higher levels of problematic behavior and anxiety.

Impact of face trustworthiness on approach-avoidance behavior of adolescents with varied social anxiety traits

Approach/avoidance behavior is a basic human behavior pattern. However, more recent studies have demonstrated that this behavior pattern greatly differs among individuals. This heterogeneity has promoted research on exploring the predictive value of individual differences. Based on Person-Context Interaction Theory, the current study focused on the impact of face trustworthiness on adolescents’ approach/avoidance behavior with varied social anxiety traits. Results revealed that the avoidance behavior of highly anxiety individuals was affected by face trustworthiness, while in contrast, individuals with low levels of anxiety were only affected by face trustworthiness in their approach behavior. This indicates that adolescents tend to be more responsive to external influences in behaviors where they have greater proficiency, whereas external factors have a less significant impact on behaviors in which they lack skill. Results were also interpreted in terms of two independent social motivations, which may benefit the development of adolescents’ interpersonal relationships and the solution of extended problems caused by social problems.

Functional connectivity density of different suicidal behaviors in adolescents with major depressive disorders.

Suicidal behavior including suicidal ideation (SI) and suicide attempts (SA) is a common clinical feature of adolescent patients with major depressive disorders (MDD). We hypothesized that differences in functional connectivity density (FCD) exist between adolescent patients with SA and SI, and aimed to investigate the different suicidal behaviors in adolescents patients with MDD17. 37 MDD adolescents with SA, 34 MDD adolescents with SI, 20 MDD adolescents without SA and SI (non-suicidal group), and 20 adolescents healthy controls (HC) were enrolled in this study. All participants were scanned using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to evaluated the FCD. Between-group differences of all variables were analyzed. The relationships between FCD values and clinical scale scores were also analyzed. The FCD of the left inferior occipital gyrus in the SI group was higher than those in the other groups. The FCD in the SA group was higher than that in the control group. The FCD of the right dorsolateral superior frontal gyrus in the SI group was lower than that in the other three groups. The FCD values of the left precentral gyrus in the SI group were higher than those in the other three groups. The left inferior occipital gyrus FCD positively correlated with the suicide factor score of Hamilton Depression Scale (HAMD), and the right dorsolateral superior frontal gyrus negatively correlated with the HAMD suicide factor score but not with the HAMD total score. Changes in FCD in adolescent patients with depression and SI can reflect changes in functional connections in the brain.

Analysis of Factors That Influence Bullying Behavior in Adolescents in Public Middle School in East Jakarta Region

Bullying is intentional aggressive behavior by a stronger individual or group of peers against a weaker individual or group of peers, whether physically, verbally, or psychologically. This behavior occurs repeatedly and has a negative impact on the victim. The discussion in this research that will be examined are the factors that influence bullying behavior, including: age, gender, parents' educational background, parents' parenting patterns, and peer factors. This research was conducted to determine the factors that influence bullying behavior among teenagers at State Middle Schools in the East Jakarta Region. This type of research is quantitative correlation research with a cross sectional approach and the sampling technique in the research was carried out using non-random sampling with a purposive sampling technique. The sample size in this study was 115 respondents and was analyzed using the chi square test for bivariate and univariate analysis. Based on the results of the analysis, there is a relationship between parental parenting factors and bullying behavior (p value 0.014), and peer factors (p value 0.006) and bullying behavior. Based on the research results from the data presentation and discussion as described in the previous chapter, the results of this research explain based on the characteristics of the respondents (age, gender, and educational background of parents) which are of particular concern regarding internal factors that can be formed in the family to pay attention to each age stage of their child's development.

Relative age effect on the physical activity and sedentary behavior in children and adolescents aged 10 to 18 years old: a cross-sectional study in Japan

BackgroundFew studies have shown that relatively younger children and adolescents (those born later in the same school year) were less likely to engage in physical activity in a phenomenon termed the relative age effect. Although these studies mainly targeted elementary and middle school students, no study has reported on the relative age effect on physical activity in ordinary high school students. Moreover, the relative age effect on sedentary behavior might show an opposite association with physical activity. Therefore, we aimed to clarify the relative age effects on physical activity and sedentary behavior across different school stages in Japanese children and adolescents.MethodsA cross-sectional questionnaire survey was conducted with 21,491 children and adolescents (elementary, middle, and high school students aged 10–18 years) in various Japanese regions from January 2018 to July 2019. Overall, 18,281 children and adolescents (10,299 boys and 7,982 girls) were finally included in our analysis. Data on the birth month, frequency and duration of their physical activity (vigorous, moderate, and moderate-to-vigorous intensity), and sedentary behavior (weekday and weekend total sedentary time, television viewing, playing video games, and Internet use) were obtained. We utilized two-part model regression analyses. Statistically significant association with birth month indicated that a relative age effect was observed.ResultsThe relatively younger individuals were less likely to engage in physical activity (especially vigorous physical activity (VPA)); this association was observed in middle and high school students. Conversely, the relatively younger boys spent more time during weekends with sedentary behaviors and Internet use. Based on school stage, the relative age effect on VPA time was observed in middle school boys (average margin effect (AME) = -0.74, p < 0.01) and high school students (boys: AME = -0.69, p < 0.01; girls: AME = -0.53, p < 0.05). The relative age effect on sedentary behavior was observed during weekends with sedentary behaviors (AME = 3.55, p < 0.01), playing video games (AME = 0.72, p < 0.05) and Internet use (AME = 2.46, p < 0.01) for male high school students and on television viewing (AME = 1.12, p < 0.05) for female middle school students.ConclusionThe relative age effect on physical activity can persist after middle school, and the relatively younger individuals are more likely to replace physical activity with sedentary behavior.