Beauty Leaf Research Articles

Predicting oil content of Australian beauty leaf tree kernel samples using near infrared spectroscopy combined with chemometrics

This study was conducted to evaluate the ability of near infrared (NIR) spectroscopy to estimate oil content, and per cent of cake, resin and residue in beauty leaf tree ( Calophyllum inophyllum L.) kernel samples. Fruits were collected from various geographical locations of tropical Australia (from Rockhampton to Darwin) and air dried before the kernels were manually separated from the fruits. Kernel samples were oven dried, crushed (5–10 mm) and their NIR spectra collected using a Fourier transform (FT) NIR instrument where the same batch of kernels were used to extract oil using a screw press. Calibration models between the NIR spectra and reference data were developed using partial least squares (PLS) regression. The cross-validation statistics including the coefficient of determination (r2) and standard error in cross validation (SECV) were 0.83 (SECV: 2.39%) for oil content, 0.89 (SECV: 2.81%) for cake, 0.88 (SECV: 1.92%) for resin and 0.79 (SECV: 2.15%) for residue, respectively. This research showed that NIR spectroscopy can be used as an alternative, faster and low-cost technique to predict oil content, per cent of cake, resins and residues in various genotypes of beauty leaf tree. Further studies should be carried out to increase the sample size and chemical variation, as well as to evaluate different methods of oil extraction (e.g., solvent extraction) to improve the reliability of the calibration models.

Biogeographic Variability in Kernel Oil and Press Cake Content of Beauty Leaf Tree (Calophyllum inophyllum L.), as Determined by Chemical and Near-Infrared Spectroscopy Analysis

The aim of this study was to evaluate biogeographic variability in the fruit, kernel, kernel-oil and press-cake contents of 50 accessions of the beauty leaf tree (C. inophyllum L.) collected from 19 locations spanning 4000 km along the eastern and northern coasts of Australia (Northern Territory and Queensland). Mature fallen fruits of C. inophyllum were collected from individual trees and stored in a shed for over a year. The fruits were cracked open to extract the kernels, and the kernels were crushed to 5–10 mm. NIR spectra of crushed kernels were collected using FT–NIR. Results of this study showed large variation between individual trees and the provenances for oil, resin and cake contents. Most of the C. inophyllum genotypes were separated based on their NIR fingerprint using PCA and PLS-DA. It was concluded that NIR spectroscopy not only aids in the screening of large numbers of genotypes, but it also allows the preservation of the tested seeds for further propagation. This feature will have the greatest advantage in plant breeding and commercial cultivation, as only the seeds that contain high oil content could be sown to help establish plantations with high oil-production capacity. Overall, it was concluded that the differences between provenances for oil, resin and cake contents can be predicted using NIR spectra. Furthermore, NIR spectroscopy can be used as a tool to define provenance variations in the kernel oil content of the beauty leaf tree.

Characterization of pyrolysis oil produced from organic and plastic wastes using an auger reactor

The objective of this study is to assess the suitability of pyrolysis oils produced from organic and plastic wastes for engine application. The assessment was performed by comparing the properties of the obtained pyrolysis oils with those of standard engine fuel. A fast pyrolysis process with an auger reactor was used to convert organic wastes such as beauty leaf fruit husk (BLFH), macadamia nutshell (MNS), and municipal green waste (MGW), and plastic waste such as waste high-density polythene (HDPE) into oil. Prior to pyrolysis experiments, all the wastes were characterized using a thermogravimetric and a CHNS analyser to perform proximate and ultimate analyses. The experiments were performed using varied temperatures ranging from 400 °C to 550 °C at intervals of 25 °C, a 3-minute residence time and 2-mm feedstock particle size. The maximum yield of pyrolysis oil was obtained at 475 °C for BLFH (42.75 %), at 500 °C for MNS (45.09 %) and MGW (44.72 %) and at 525 °C for HDPE (61.29 %). The chemical and physical properties of the pyrolysis oils were analysed using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS), elemental and physicochemical properties analysis. The characterisation results reveal that the pyrolysis oils obtained from BLFH, MNS and MGW are enriched with phenolic, aromatic, and oxygenated compounds and oil obtained from HDPE contains mostly hydrocarbons and aromatics. The BLFH, MNS and MGW derived oils have higher viscosity and density and lower calorific value compared to that of HDPE derived oil. Due to these features, the oils obtained from organic wastes are not suitable for engine application without further refinement. HDPE derived oil, on the other hand, meets most of the criteria to be an engine fuel. However, a firm conclusion cannot be drawn until this oil has been tested in an engine.

Fast pyrolysis of Beauty Leaf Fruit Husk (BLFH) in an auger reactor: Effect of temperature on the yield and physicochemical properties of BLFH oil

This study investigated the effect of temperature on the yield and quality of pyrolysis oil produced from Beauty Leaf Fruit Husk (BLFH) using fast pyrolysis process. The BLFH was subjected to fast pyrolysis process using an auger reactor wherein the temperature was varied from 400 °C to 550 °C with 50 °C interval. The residence time of 3 min 20 s and the feedstock particle size of less than 1 mm were used in this study to produce bio-oil. The bio-oil yield was highest (∼45%) at 500 °C. At these conditions, the biochar and syngas yields were ∼33% and ∼22%, respectively. Analysis of the bio-oil showed the presence of 9 functional groups, with the phenol, aromatics and alcohol groups dominating the others. The amine group was present at the lowest concentration. It was also found that at 500 °C, concentration of carbon and the calorific val1ue were the highest and concentration of oxygen and water content were the lowest. The values of this combination of different elements and physicochemical properties can be referred as the best combination. The kinematic viscosity and density were decreased by around 15% and 7%, respectively as the pyrolysis temperature was increased from 400 °C to 550 °C. Other properties such as calorific value, flash point and cetane number did not exhibit substantial differences across the temperature treatments. Based on these results, it can be concluded that the BLFH will serve as a suitable source to produce renewable energy like bio-oil.

Maximizing Energy Recovery from Beauty Leaf Tree (Calophyllum inophyllum L.) Oil Seed Press Cake via Pyrolysis

This study optimizes pyrolysis conditions that will maximize energy recovery from the Beauty Leaf Tree (BLT; Calophyllum inophyllum L.) oil seed press cake. Response surface methodology (RSM) was used to determine the behavior of pyrolysis coproducts (solid, liquid and gas) at various temperatures and residence times. One significant discovery was that 61.7% of the energy (of the whole BLT oil seed) was still retained in the BLT oil seed cake after oil extraction. Controlled pyrolysis produced various proportions of biochar, bio-oil and syngas coproducts. Predictive models were developed to estimate both the mass and energy yields of the coproducts. In all experimental runs, the biochar component had the highest mass yield and energy content. Biochar mass yields were high at the lowest operating temperature used, but the energy yields based on a high heating value (HHV) of products were optimal at higher operating temperatures. From the RSM models, energy from the biochar is optimized at a pyrolysis temperature of 425 °C and 75 min of exposure time. This biochar would have a heating value of 29.5 MJ kg−1, which is similar to a good quality coal. At this condition, 56.6% of the energy can be recovered in the form of biochar and 20.6% from the bio-oil. The study shows that almost all the energy present in the feedstock can be recovered via pyrolysis. This indicates that commercial biodiesel producers from BLT oil seed (and other oil seed) should recover these additional valuable energies to generate high value coproducts. This additional efficient energy conversion process via controlled pyrolysis will improve the overall economics and the feasibility of 2nd generation biodiesel production from BLT—a highly potential species for cultivation in many tropical countries.

Pyrolysis of Beauty Leaf Fruit Husk: Effect of Process Temperature on the Yield, Composition, and Properties of Produced Bio-Oil

Pyrolysis of Beauty Leaf Fruit Husk: Effect of Process Temperature on the Yield, Composition, and Properties of Produced Bio-Oil

Biodiesel feedstocks selection strategies based on economic, technical, and sustainable aspects

The interest in sustainable energy sources such as biodiesel is growing due to unpredictable fossil fuel prices, depletion of their origins, inconsistent supply, geopolitical instability, and conflicts of fuel/oil-producing countries, global politics, and sanctions. The selection of the right biodiesel feedstocks is the first step of mass biodiesel production. This paper is aimed at defining the best possible biodiesel feedstocks using various multiple criteria decision analysis (MCDA) processes. Several facets that can effect on the biodiesel feedstocks selection process are economic, technical, environmental, and social aspects. This study concentrated on fifteen ‘criteria’ based on the economic aspect (cost of biodiesel production), technical aspects (physicochemical properties and structural composition (fatty acid) of biodiesel feedstocks), and environmental aspects (sustainable land usage for crop production) for the selection process. Sixteen most popular biodiesel feedstocks, namely Palm, Soybean, Sunflower, Moringa, Jatropha, Pongamia, Mustard, Coconut, Tallow, Peanut, Corn, Cottonseed, Ricebran, Beauty leaf, Rapeseed and waste cooking oil biodiesel were investigated as ‘alternatives’ in this analysis. For ‘weight’ determination of each criterion, five weighting methods in percentage, namely EQUAL, CRITIC, ENTROPY, Analytical hierarchical process (AHP), and Fuzzy Analytical Hierarchical Process (FAHP) were used. Four MCDA processes, namely PROMETHEE Graphical Analysis for Interactive Assistance (GAIA), Weighted sum method (WSM), Weighted product method (WPM), and Technique for order preference by similarity to ideal solution (TOPSIS) were implemented for this investigation. The findings indicate that Coconut rated best and Soybean was regarded as the worst feedstock among those alternatives.

A pragmatic and critical analysis of engine emissions for biodiesel blended fuels

This paper explores the impact of non-edible biodiesel blends on emission characteristics under various loading conditions in a naturally aspirated four-strokes multi-cylinder diesel engine. A comparative analysis of the emissions characteristics of four non-edible biodiesel (beauty leaf biodiesel, papaya seed biodiesel, stone fruit biodiesel and tomato seed biodiesel) blends (20% vol. = B20) and diesel was performed by varying engine loads (0, 50 and 100%) and speeds (1200, 1800 and 2400 rpm). The aim was to optimise operating parameters such as biodiesel blends, engine loads and speed on engine emissions such as nitrogen oxide (NOx), carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrocarbon (HC), particulate matter (PM), carbon monoxide (CO) and exhaust gas temperature (EGT). A statistical model and analysis of variance (ANOVA) were used to optimise various parameters. At full load condition and 2400 rpm, the minimum and maximum increase in NOx and CO2 emissions were found to be 4.1% to 23.6% and 1.7% to 19% for papaya seed biodiesel PB20 and beauty leaf biodiesel BTL20 respectively. The results reveal that the engine load and speed were the two most imperative parameters that affected emissions (NOx, HC, PM and CO). Both biodiesel blend and the load were responsible for changing the EGT and NOx emissions. While NOx emissions were unaffected by variations in biodiesel blends, load or speed, the CO2 emissions were not affected by the operating parameters. To conclude, papaya seed oil can be a plausible biodiesel feedstock and its diesel blends with varying engine speeds, and loads can provide optimal engine testing characteristics for negotiating NOx, CO2, HC, PM, CO, and EGT concentration.

Comparison of oil extraction between screw press and solvent (n-hexane) extraction technique from beauty leaf (Calophyllum inophyllum L.) feedstock

An experimental investigation was conducted to evaluate the effects of the processing of the raw materials, such as preparation and extraction, grating (whole and grated), drying and moisture conditioning of the seed kernels on the yield of oil extraction. Both mechanical and chemical methods were used to extract oil from the beauty leaf (BL) seed kernel using a screw press expeller and n-hexane as an oil solvent, respectively. Both whole kernel (WK) and grated kernel (GK) were used in screw press technique, whereas, only GK was used in n-hexane technique. The study indicated that the kernels prepared for 14.4 % moisture content (MC) produced the highest yield of oil in both methods. The highest oil yield of 86.4 % was obtained on the basis of the weight of the kernel in n-hexane method for the GK. On the other hand, the oil yield of 78.0 and 72.1 % was achieved using a screw press technique for the GK and WK, respectively. The gas chromatography (GC) analysis was conducted to determine the fatty acid compositions of beauty leaf oil. The physico-chemical properties of the beauty leaf oil (BLO) were evaluated. A comparison of fossil energy ratio (FER) was made between n-hexane and screw press methods. The FER in-hexane method was found 4.9, whereas, in screw press method it was found 3.4 and 3.1 for the GK and WK, respectively, which indicates that n-hexane method is more efficient than screw press technique. This study provides an understanding of the basis of selecting an appropriate oil extraction technique for oil extraction users in large scale applications.

The efficacy of multiple-criteria design matrix for biodiesel feedstock selection

The increasing demand for energy and depletion of fossil fuels are drawing attention to biofuel as a replacement for petroleum diesel. Hundreds of non-edible biodiesel feedstocks are available and are derived from seeds and animal fat or tallow. However, the selection of appropriate feedstock is fraught with difficulty, as these feedstocks have not been fully evaluated for various parameters that impact upon the performance and cost of the biofuel. Various technical, environmental, economic and social factors influence biodiesel feedstocks selection process. This paper focuses on technical aspects such as physico-chemical properties and fatty acid compositions of biodiesels in the screening process. Six biodiesels, namely papaya seed oil biodiesel (PSO), stone fruit kernel oil biodiesel (SFO), jatropha oil biodiesel (JBD), rapeseed oil biodiesel (RBD), beauty leaf tree biodiesel (BLT), and waste cooking oil biodiesel (WCB) were analysed in this study. Twelve physico-chemical properties of kinematic viscosity (KV), density, higher heating value (HHV), oxidation stability (OS), acid value (AV), flash point (FP), cold filter plug point (CFPP), cetane number (CN), iodine value (IV), monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA), polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) and long chain saturated factor (LCSF) were selected as criteria for ranking the above biodiesels. Three weightage (%) methods of EQUAL, CRITIC and ENTROPY were used for weight determination of criteria. Four different multiple-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) methods, namely PROMETHEE Graphical Analysis for Interactive Assistance (GAIA), Weighted sum method (WSM), Weighted product method (WPM), and Technique for order preference by similarity to ideal solution (TOPSIS) were used for the analysis. Properties of these biodiesels were found to be within the limits of ASTM D6751-2, EN 14214 and the Australian standard. Finally, the results show that SFO was ranked as the best performer amongst the six biodiesel feedstocks examined in this study, PSO came out as the second best, and the WCB biodiesel feedstock was identified as the worst performer.

Experimental Investigations to Demonstrate Biodiesel Potential of Beauty Leaf Tree (Calophyllum inophyllum L.)

Beauty Leaf Tree (BLT) is a wild Australian plant that has drawn the attention of many scientists who are searching for sustainable sources of renewable energy. This is because BLT produces about 10,000 fruits per tree, and the seeds contain up to 70% oil. Most importantly, it has the ability to grow on marginal soils in many tropical countries. The number of studies dealing with this species have escalated over the last three years, partly due to the studies carried out by the Central Queensland University (CQU). This paper summarises the results of those investigations that include testing for natural variability in growth, phenology and seed production, and developing seed collection and seed oil extraction procedures. The techniques used in converting the BLT oil into biodiesel, testing the biodiesel for engine performance and emission characteristics, and evaluating the BLT genotypes for stress tolerance are also explained. These investigations clearly demonstrate the potential of BLT to serve as the future feedstock for 2nd generation biofuel production in developed and developing tropical countries.

Performance and emission characteristics of a compression ignition (CI) engine operated with beauty leaf biodiesel

In this investigation, diesel and beauty leaf (Calophyllum inophyllum L.) biodiesel (BLB)-diesel blends (B5, B10 and B20) were used to evaluate the performance and emission characteristics of a compression ignition (CI) engine. During the experiment, the speed of the engine was varied from 1200 rpm to 2400 rpm at 200 rpm interval. The results indicated that the performance characteristics, such as BP and BSFC in biodiesel blended fuel increases with increase in engine speed at full load condition with a few exceptions in BSFC at 1400 rpm. On the other hand, BTE and BMEP in biodiesel blended fuel decreases with increase in engine speed at 100% load with few exceptions at 1400 rpm. The results also revealed that the BP, BTE and BMEP are lower, whereas, the BSFC is higher in biodiesel blended fuel in comparison to diesel. In terms of emission characteristics, the results indicated that the emission of nitrogen oxides (NOx) increases, whereas, carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbon (HC), and particulate matter (PM) decreases with increase in engine speed at full load condition. The results also shown that the use of biodiesel-diesel blends in CI engine led to the significant reduction in CO, HC and PM emissions in comparison to conventional diesel. On the other hand, it has been observed that the NOx emissions are increased in biodiesel-diesel blends when they are compared to diesel.

Application of FTIR-ATR spectroscopy to detect salinity response in Beauty Leaf Tree (Calophyllum inophyllum L)

Beauty leaf tree (BLT) has been ranked as a valuable 2nd generation feedstock for biodiesel production. This tree is suitable for growing on marginal land to avoid food vs fuel debate. However, at present little is known about its tolerance to marginal soil conditions such as salinity. Thus, a sand culture experiment was conducted, and the seedlings of BLT were exposed to 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100 mM NaCl for up to 245 days. Plant growth and physiological measurements were recorded and the whole leaf and powdered stem were scanned using FTIR-ATR to test if these spectra can be used to delineate differences between the control and the NaCl-treated plants. Results showed that the chlorophyll content and leaf expansion rate were little affected at 25 and 50 mM NaCl, as compared to the control, and they declined at higher NaCl concentrations. The tissue Na and Cl concentrations increased with NaCl increment. The differences between the control and the NaCl-treated plants were distinct at certain FTIR-ATR spectra showing that the plants that were exposed to NaCl had synthesised certain organic compounds to maintain osmotic gradient between the tissues and soil solution. This study found that the biochemical changes that occur in the functional groups of NaCl–treated plants can be detected by the FTIR-ATR spectroscopy, thus showing the potential of this technology to screen large number of genotypes in plant breeding trials. This technology is particularly suited to tree crops that have slow growth rate in the seedling stage.

Physicochemical property enhancement of biodiesel synthesis from hybrid feedstocks of waste cooking vegetable oil and Beauty leaf oil through optimized alkaline-catalysed transesterification

Recycling waste cooking vegetable oils by reclaiming and using these oils as biodiesel feedstocks is one of the promising solutions to address global energy demands. However, producing these biodiesels poses a significant challenge because of their poor physicochemical properties due the high free fatty acid content and impurities present in the feedstock, which will reduce the biodiesel yields. Hence, this study implemented the following strategy in order to address this issue: (1) 70 vol% of waste cooking vegetable oil blended with 30 vol% of Calophyllum inophyllum oil named as WC70CI30 used to alter its properties, (2) a three-stage process (degumming, esterification, and transesterification) was conducted which reduces the free fatty acid content and presence of impurities, and (3) the transesterification process parameters (methanol/oil ratio, reaction temperature, reaction time, and catalyst concentration) were optimized using response surface methodology in order to increase the biodiesel conversion yield. The results show that the WC70CI30 biodiesel has favourable physicochemical properties, good cold flow properties, and high oxidation stability (22.4 h), which fulfil the fuel specifications stated in the ASTM D6751 and EN 14214 standards. It found that the WC70CI30 biodiesel has great potential as a diesel substitute without the need for antioxidants and pour point depressants.

Physio-chemical assessment of beauty leaf (Calophyllum inophyllum) as second-generation biodiesel feedstock

Recently, second-generation (non-vegetable oil) feedstocks for biodiesel production are receiving significant attention due to the cost and social effects connected with utilising food products for the production of energy products. The Beauty leaf tree (Calophyllum inophyllum) is a potential source of non-edible oil for producing second-generation biodiesel because of its suitability for production in an extensive variety of atmospheric condition, easy cultivation, high fruit production rate, and the high oil content in the seed. In this study, oil was extracted from Beauty leaf tree seeds through three different oil extraction methods. The important physical and chemical properties of these extracted Beauty leaf oils were experimentally analysed and compared with other commercially available vegetable oils. Biodiesel was produced using a two-stage esterification process combining of an acid catalysed pre-esterification process and an alkali catalysed transesterification process. Fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) profiles and important physicochemical properties were experimentally measured and estimated using equations based on the FAME analysis. The quality of Beauty leaf biodiesels was assessed and compared with commercially available biodiesels through multivariate data analysis using PROMETHEE-GAIA software. The results show that mechanical extraction using a screw press produces oil at a low cost, however, results in low oil yields compared with chemical oil extraction. High pressure and temperature in the extraction process increase oil extraction performance. On the contrary, this process increases the free fatty acid content in the oil. A clear difference was found in the physical properties of Beauty leaf oils, which eventually affected the oil to biodiesel conversion process. However, Beauty leaf oils methyl esters (biodiesel) were very consistent physicochemical properties and able to meet almost all indicators of biodiesel standards. Overall this study found that Beauty leaf is a suitable feedstock for producing second-generation biodiesel in commercial scale. Therefore, the findings of this study are expected to serve as the basis for further development of Beauty leaf as a feedstock for industrial scale second-generation biodiesel production.

Optimisation of Oil Extraction Process from Australian Native Beauty Leaf Seed (Calophyllum Inophyllum)

Abstract In this study, the oil extraction process from Australian native beauty leaf seed has been optimised in terms of seed preparation and cracking, seed kernel treatment, moisture content and oil extraction methods. Two methods: mechanical oil extraction using an electric powered screw press and chemical oil extraction using n-hexane as an oil solvent have been applied to extract oil from the seed kernel. Both whole and grated kernels have been used for mechanical oil extraction process. The study indicated that treatment of seed kernel has a significant impact on oil yields for both techniques. It has been observed that kernels prepared to 15% moisture content provided the highest oil yields for both extraction methods. Mechanical extraction using the screw press could produce oil from the prepared kernels at a low cost. In addition, it has been obtained that oil yields by using grated kernels were relatively higher than the whole kernels. However, oil extraction by using this technique is ineffective due to relatively lower oil yields compared to chemical extraction. On the other hand, chemical extraction was found to be a very effective method for oil extraction because of its consistence performance and high oil yield, but cost of production was relatively higher due to high cost of solvent. The outcomes of this study are expected to serve as the basis on which industrial scale oil extraction can be made from beauty leaf seed.

Modelling and experimental investigation of engine performance and emissions fuelled with biodiesel produced from Australian Beauty Leaf Tree

This study first experimentally investigates the performance and exhausts emissions of a compression ignition (CI) engine fuelled with biodiesel produced from Australian beauty leaf tree (BLT) oil and compares these results with that of petroleum diesel. Then, an engine combustion model is developed using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) software, AVL Fire, to predict the engine performance and emission of those biodiesels and petroleum diesel. Experiments were done according to ISO 8178 standard engine test procedure using B5 biodiesel (5% BLT blend), B10 (10% BLT blend) and petroleum diesel in a 4-cylinder engine test-bed equipped with necessary dynamometer and sensors. The measurements were done for engine power, torque, specific fuel consumption and engine emissions. The combustion model is validated with the experimentally measured data, which shows very good agreement between them, more specifically variation of only up to 4.4% in power, 4.0% in torque and 3.3% in specific fuel consumption was found. The experimental results show that overall B10 biodiesel provides significantly reduced engine emissions, up to 18% compared to petroleum diesel. The validated model is then used to optimise the engine performance and emissions as a function of operating parameters such as ignition timing, crank angles and compression ratios. The simulation results show that B10 provides a slight improvement in performance and significant reduction in emission. It is believed that this paper provides a solid base of new knowledge towards achieving a sustainable BLT biodiesel industry.

Biodiesel Production from Non-Edible Beauty Leaf (Calophyllum inophyllum) Oil: Process Optimization Using Response Surface Methodology (RSM)

In recent years, the beauty leaf plant (Calophyllum Inophyllum) is being considered as a potential 2nd generation biodiesel source due to high seed oil content, high fruit production rate, simple cultivation and ability to grow in a wide range of climate conditions. However, however, due to the high free fatty acid (FFA) content in this oil, the potential of this biodiesel feedstock is still unrealized, and little research has been undertaken on it. In this study, transesterification of beauty leaf oil to produce biodiesel has been investigated. A two-step biodiesel conversion method consisting of acid catalysed pre-esterification and alkali catalysed transesterification has been utilized. The three main factors that drive the biodiesel (fatty acid methyl ester (FAME)) conversion from vegetable oil (triglycerides) were studied using response surface methodology (RSM) based on a Box-Behnken experimental design. The factors considered in this study were catalyst concentration, methanol to oil molar ratio and reaction temperature. Linear and full quadratic regression models were developed to predict FFA and FAME concentration and to optimize the reaction conditions. The significance of these factors and their interaction in both stages was determined using analysis of variance (ANOVA). The reaction conditions for the largest reduction in FFA concentration for acid catalysed pre-esterification was 30:1 methanol to oil molar ratio, 10% (w/w) sulfuric acid catalyst loading and 75 °C reaction temperature. In the alkali catalysed transesterification process 7.5:1 methanol to oil molar ratio, 1% (w/w) sodium methoxide catalyst loading and 55 °C reaction temperature were found to result in the highest FAME conversion. The good agreement between model outputs and experimental results demonstrated that this methodology may be useful for industrial process optimization for biodiesel production from beauty leaf oil and possibly other industrial processes as well.

Modelling of Engine Performance Fuelled with Second Generation Biodiesel

Increasing interest in diesel engine technology and the continuous demand of finding alternative sustainable fuels as well as reducing emissions has motivated over the years for the development of numerical models, to provide qualitatively predictive tools for the designers. Among the alternative fuels, biodiesel especially second generation biodiesel is considered as a sustainable and the most promising option for diesel engine. In this study an engine combustion model has been developed using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) software, AVL Fire, which can predict the engine performance, and emission characteristics for second generation biodiesel produced from Australian native beauty leaf seed (BLS). This model involves simulation of fuel atomization, burning velocity, combustion duration, and temperature and pressure development in a combustion chamber. The model has been developed for petroleum diesel (normal diesel used in automobiles), 5% BLS biodiesel (B5) and 10% BLS biodiesel (B10) for different injection timings and compression ratios. The simulation results revealed that overall B10 biodiesel provides better performance and efficiency, and significantly reduced engine emissions. On the other hand, the B5 blend provides slightly improved performance and efficiency, and moderately reduced emissions compared to petroleum diesel.

Optimisation of Bio-Oil Extraction Process from Beauty Leaf (Calophyllum Inophyllum) Oil Seed as a Second Generation Biodiesel Source

Abstract The Beauty Leaf tree (Calophyllum inophyllum) is a potential source of non-edible vegetable oil for producing future generation biodiesel because of its ability to grow in a wide range of climate conditions, easy cultivation, high fruit production rate, and the high oil content in the seed. This plant naturally occurs in the coastal areas of Queensland and the Northern Territory in Australia, and is also widespread in south-east Asia, India and Sri Lanka. Although Beauty Leaf is traditionally used as a source of timber and orientation plant, its potential as a source of second generation biodiesel is yet to be exploited. In this study, the extraction process from the Beauty Leaf oil seed has been optimised in terms of seed preparation, moisture content and oil extraction methods. The two methods that have been considered to extract oil from the seed kernel are mechanical oil extraction using an electric powered screw press, and chemical oil extraction using n- hexane as an oil solvent. The study found that seed preparation has a significant impact on oil yields, especially in the screw press extraction method. Kernels prepared to 15% moisture content provided the highest oil yields for both extraction methods. Mechanical extraction using the screw press can produce oil from correctly prepared product at a low cost, however overall this method is ineffective with relatively low oil yields. Chemical extraction was found to be a very effective method for oil extraction for its consistence performance and high oil yield, but cost of production was relatively higher due to the high cost of solvent. However, a solvent recycle system can be implemented to reduce the production cost of Beauty Leaf biodiesel. The findings of this study are expected to serve as the basis from which industrial scale biodiesel production from Beauty Leaf can be made.