Bayon Temple Research Articles

The Amazing Mechanism of the Standing for 700years of the Tall Masonry Stone Tower of 32m in height on Manmade Sandy High Mound by Shallow Direct Foundation, Bayon Temple, Angkor, Cambodia

Soils and foundation of Bayon temple of Angkor Thom has been studied since 1994 by Japanese Government Team for Safeguarding Angkor (JSA). The main tower of Bayon of 32m in height from the base foundation mound consists of manmade fill of 14 m in thickness. The foundation was studied and found as a simple shallow direct foundation. This is just like a 10 story RC building standing upon thick manmade sand fill without such a deep foundation as piling. At present, such a structure based upon thick sandy fill shall lose the foundation stability in the dry season under the monsoon climate of South-eastern Asia. The amazing mechanism, standing for 700 years, has been identified as the unsaturated characteristics of well compacted silty sand.

De-calcification as an important mechanism in (bio)deterioration of sandstone of Angkor monuments in Cambodia

Stone biodeterioration has been categorically attributed to a number of key factors, including physical, chemical, and (micro)biological ones. Though colonization by microorganisms on stone has been reported widely, the specific mechanisms involved for material destruction have only been revealed recently with the biochemical reactions and mechanisms identified, involving nitrogen and sulfur cycling reactions. This article reports a finding on the dissolution and loss of CaCO3 in the destruction of stone over time of exposure, which increases the porosity of the stone to trap atmospheric depositions, and enhance the development and growth of microorganisms because of improved water holding capacity and available nutrients comparing with the fresh stone. This sharp difference in CaCO3 contents between the fresh sandstone from the quarry and those from the Bayon temple in Cambodia illustrates the direct connection between the mineral dissolution reactions and microbial catalyzed contribution to it. Such alteration to the properties of the initial stone is fundamentally important to the colonization and development of microbiome on the stone, especially ammonia-oxidizing archaea (AOA) and bacteria (AOB), and Comammox bacteria as detected. Together with other nitrogen transformation microorganisms, e.g., dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium (DNRA), the microbiome can be sustained and diversified over time. Based on this and other recent results, further verification and experimental studies are needed to confirm this mechanism in a systematic way to advance a better knowledge about stone deterioration under natural conditions, which are basic information for scientific protection and management of world cultural heritage.

Towers on the Earthen Foundation: New Insights by the Excavation and Boring Survey at the Bayon Temple

Bayon temple, built in the latter half of the 12th century, is one representative temple of the Angkor monuments. To shed light on the foundation structure of the central towers that stand on the elevated terrace, archaeological excavation and boring tests were conducted. Based on these surveys, a unique foundation structure was revealed under the central towers. It was confirmed that there is no laterite or sandstone support structure directly beneath the upper structure, and that there is only compacted soil at a thickness of approximately 16 m above the natural sedimentary soil. On the other hand, a laterite masonry 6 m thick and 7–9 m wide was confirmed from around the compacted soil. In other words, the heavy load of the central towers is supported by compacted soil that is constrained from the sides by a laterite structure. In addition, the boring surveys provided new insights into the low structural property of the backfilled soil after the past excavation survey below the central tower and the extension process of the elevated terrace supporting the central towers. Delivered information about the foundation structure and material of central towers, including soil property, water table, water contents, and bearing capacity will be valuable for the future structural assessment of this temple.

The Authenticity and Integrity of Soil and Foundation of Bayon Temple in Angkor, Cambodia

The heritage structure of Bayon in Angkor stands upon a shallow direct foundation. The high main tower stands upon thick human-made fill without special supporting elements for such a foundation as piles. The strong strength of the human-made fill that supports heavy stone structure is one of the characters defining aspects of the authenticity of the foundation of Bayon in Angkor Thom. Several methods of restoration of retaining foundation structures in Angkor in the past are reviewed in terms of authenticity.

Tourist Participation in the Preservation of World Heritage – A Study at Bayon Temple in Cambodia –

World Heritage Sites (WHSs) face several problems, such as increased maintenance costs, difficulties in checking protection conditions, and graffiti destruction by tourists. Hence, constructing a new system that can effectively lighten the burden of maintenance expenditures is necessary. Presently, a new preservation system that leverages Information and Communication Technology, 3D Restoration Technology by photographic data collection, and artificial intelligence and that involves tourists’ participation has been developed. This paper aims to introduce the new preservation system, investigate the possibility of tourists cooperating with the system free of charge, and introduce the details and results of a choice experiment conducted on tourists at Bayon Temple in Cambodia. Analysis results showed that approximately 50% of respondents would be willing to cooperate free of charge, and statistical significance for certain attributes and interactions. The analysis indicated that providing appropriate incentives to tourists who have specific individual characteristics would help promote the use of the preservation system.

PERSISTENCY OF USE OF BOROBUDUR-PRAMBANANSEWU ARCHITECTURE (JAWA ERA CENTRAL CLASS) ON BAYON TEMPLE IN KAMBOJA

Abstract- Indonesia was in its heyday back then In the time of middle classic era of Hindu and Buddha. It is proved by many construction of big Temple such as Borobudur, Prambanan, and Sewu Temple. In Angkor Kingdom which was younger age was found alleged resemblance to the figure of Angkor temple and Prambanan Borobudur, and Sewu temple. It is also supported by the fact that in the 8th century, King Jayawarman II who built Angkor, returned from Java.The Cambodian temple research object this time is Bayon Temple which is the last civilization of Angkor Kingdom with Prambanan, Borobudur and Sewu temples as a comparative object that represents Middle Classic era of the Javanese temple architecture. The purpose of this research is to know the persistence of architectural elements (massing, plan, figure, and ornamentation) of Borobudur, Sewu and Prambanan temple (Javanese temple of Middle Classic era) at Bayon temple viewed from similarities and differences of these elements. The research method used in this research is semiquantitative-qualitative method by observing, collecting temple data of research object, then linking data with related theory so that it becomes processed data. Data that have been processed with the theory of each temple then compared each other to get a descriptive analysis of the similarities and differences of its elements. That data was recalculated then to find the amount of similarities of the study object with the object of comparison can be found. From the analysis can be concluded that at Bayon temple there are similarities of element found with Javanese Middle Classic era of architecture, but similarities are only found on the principle of designing the mass, plan, and the figure only, while in ornaments there were found ornaments with the same type exist but not similar or not in the same place. Key Words: persistent, comparation, essential elements of the temple, Javanese Middle Classic era of Architecture, Bayon Temple, acculturation.

Bayon Temple In The Development Of Budhisme In Cambodia

<p>Cambodia is experiencing tremendous tourism developments. Many choices of tourist attractions that can be selected by tourists. Each tourist attraction provides interesting offers for tourists who visit. The existence of temples in Cambodia is the main attraction for tourists, so many temples start to become a tourist spot. Bayon Temple is one of the tourist attractions visited by tourists. Utilization of Bayon Temple as a tourist visit is a result of tourism development. These developments affect the social and cultural life of Buddhists in Cambodia.</p>

Higher diversity and abundance of ammonia-oxidizing archaea than bacteria detected at the Bayon Temple of Angkor Thom in Cambodia

Ammonia-oxidizing archaea (AOA) and bacteria (AOB) are two groups of the ammonia-oxidizing microorganisms responsible for conversion of ammonia to nitrite, producing acidity and damaging building materials, including valuable cultural heritage stone structures. In this study, the molecular biomarker of amoA gene of archaea and bacteria was applied in polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification and quantitative real-time (RT) PCR (qPCR) to detect the abundance of AOA and AOB at 4 locations (Pond, Entrance, Gallery and Central Tower) of Bayon temple at Angkor Thom, Cambodia. The results showed that both AOA and AOB were positively detected at all locations and the diversity index suggested that AOA were more diverse than AOB. Sequences of AOA were mainly distributed in Group I.1b and few clustered in Group I.1a and Group I.1a-associated, while AOB were all closely related to β-proteobacteria (Nitrosospira). Based on the qPCR results, AOA outnumbered AOB clearly, the gene copy numbers of AOA amoA gene ranged from 1.35 × 106 to 2.52 × 108 copies per gram of dry materials, while, in comparison, AOB amoA gene copy numbers from 6.54 × 105 to 4.52 × 106 copies per gram of dry materials. In addition, the abundance of amoA gene from galleries was the highest than other locations. At gallery section, gene abundance, NH4+ and NO3− agreed well with the intensity of biofilm development. Based on the community and abundance analysis, nitrogen cycling plays an important role in contributing to deterioration of sandstone monuments at Angkor Thom in Cambodia under tropical climate.

Recent insights into analytical precision and modelling of DDA and NMM for practical problems

This paper discussed the analytical precision on equations of motion in some practical studies that use 2-D DDA, 2D-Coupled analysis of NMM & DDA, and 3D-DDA. We point out the main reason for numerical instability in DDA is loss of the effective digits when superposing the global stiffness matrix under the variable conditions of large and the small blocks. Categories of analyses are distributed in 2D-DDA static masonry structures such as the Great Pyramid and the Pont du Gard, 2D-DDA dynamic rock fall problems and the sensitivity of its analysis on the velocity ratio and the penalty, earthquake response analysis of rock slopes, 2D-NMM, 2D-coupled analysis of DDA and NMM and 3D-DDA rock fall problem. The selected examples on the Great Pyramid, Pont du Gard and Bayon Temple at Angkor Thom are located in Egypt, France and Cambodia respectively as UNESCO world heritages sites. The authors evaluated the applicability of the methods and the reliability of the results by comparing different methods and site observations from the practical problems.

Bacterial Communities in Pigmented Biofilms Formed on the Sandstone Bas-Relief Walls of the Bayon Temple, Angkor Thom, Cambodia

Volume 28, no. 4, Page 422–431, 2013 Page 422 Date of “Published online” is incorrect. It should be corrected as follows: incorrect: November 26, 2013 correct: December 13, 2013 This correction has been completed on the electronic file of the present paper available at J-STAGE. The editorial board expresses sincere apology for the misprinting. Microbes and Environments editorial board

Bacterial Communities in Pigmented Biofilms Formed on the Sandstone Bas-Relief Walls of the Bayon Temple, Angkor Thom, Cambodia

Bacterial Communities in Pigmented Biofilms Formed on the Sandstone Bas-Relief Walls of the Bayon Temple, Angkor Thom, Cambodia

Bacterial Communities in Pigmented Biofilms Formed on the Sandstone Bas-Relief Walls of the Bayon Temple, Angkor Thom, Cambodia

The Bayon temple in Angkor Thom, Cambodia has shown serious deterioration and is subject to the formation of various pigmented biofilms. Because biofilms are damaging the bas-reliefs, low reliefs engraved on the surface of sandstone, information about the microbial community within them is indispensable to control biofilm colonization. PCR-denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) analysis of biofilm samples from the pigmented sandstone surfaces showed that the bacterial community members in the biofilms differed clearly from those in the air and had low sequence similarity to database sequences. Non-destructive sampling of biofilm revealed novel bacterial groups of predominantly Rubrobacter in salmon pink biofilm, Cyanobacteria in chrome green biofilm, Cyanobacteria and Chloroflexi in signal violet biofilm, Chloroflexi in black gray biofilm, and Deinococcus-Thermus, Cyanobacteria, and Rubrobacter in blue green biofilm. Serial peeling-off of a thick biofilm by layers with adhesive sheets revealed a stratified structure: the blue–green biofilm, around which there was serious deterioration, was very rich in Cyanobacteria near the surface and Chloroflexi in deep layer below. Nitrate ion concentrations were high in the blue–green biofilm. The characteristic distribution of bacteria at different biofilm depths provides valuable information on not only the biofilm formation process but also the sandstone weathering process in the tropics.

Occurrence of Aspergillus allahabadii on sandstone at Bayon temple, Angkor Thom, Cambodia

Microbial biofilms on surface of sandstone is detrimental to the integrity of the substratum material and they are biodeteriogens responsible for the damage of sandstone over time. We observed that fungi formed extensive biofilms on areas previously colonized by autotrophic and heterotrophic microbial biofilms causing darkening of the stone surface. Appearance of fungi on these biofilms has resulted in removal of the preformed biofilm through extensive examination of sandstone surfaces in Angkor Thom, Cambodia. One fungus, isolated from the surface with capability of removing biofilms, was purified and identified as Aspergillus allahabadii during our survey and sampling of microbial biofilms at Bayon temple, Angkor Thom, Cambodia in 2008. Ribosomal RNA (ITS and 5.8S) and β-tubulin gene sequences were phylogenetically analyzed to confirm the taxonomy of this strain. In addition, its protein profile and enzyme assays were also carried out and β-galactosidase was the highest among 7 enzymes tested. Our results suggest that fungi may have an important role in removing microbial biofilms on surfaces of stone and potential mechanisms and applications are discussed.

Microbial Community Analysis of Fresh and Old Microbial Biofilms on Bayon Temple Sandstone of Angkor Thom, Cambodia

The temples of Angkor monuments including Angkor Thom and Bayon in Cambodia and surrounding countries were exclusively constructed using sandstone. They are severely threatened by biodeterioration caused by active growth of different microorganisms on the sandstone surfaces, but knowledge on the microbial community and composition of the biofilms on the sandstone is not available from this region. This study investigated the microbial community diversity by examining the fresh and old biofilms of the biodeteriorated bas-relief wall surfaces of the Bayon Temple by analysis of 16S and 18S rRNA gene sequences. The results showed that the retrieved sequences were clustered in 11 bacterial, 11 eukaryotic and two archaeal divisions with disparate communities (Acidobacteria, Actinobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Cyanobacteria, Proteobacteria; Alveolata, Fungi, Metazoa, Viridiplantae; Crenarchaeote, and Euyarchaeota). A comparison of the microbial communities between the fresh and old biofilms revealed that the bacterial community of old biofilm was very similar to the newly formed fresh biofilm in terms of bacterial composition, but the eukaryotic communities were distinctly different between these two. This information has important implications for understanding the formation process and development of the microbial diversity on the sandstone surfaces, and furthermore to the relationship between the extent of biodeterioration and succession of microbial communities on sandstone in tropic region.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s00248-010-9707-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Nouvelles perspectives pour la connaissance de l'histoire de la fin de la période angkorienne au Cambodge : notes sur quelques bas-reliefs de la galerie intérieure du Bayon

This paper refers to some conclusions of a Ph.D. thesis which deals with the history and art history of Ancient Cambodia at the end of the Angkorian period (ca. 1220-ca. 1431). After a presentation of previous studies about these little documented centuries, a brief picture of historical and religious context is provided, emphasizing the principal events. While dynastic chronology is interrupted for fifty years (1220 -1270), the Mahāyānic form of Buddhism is suddenly ousted by Saivite sectarian devotees. At the same time, the Theravāda, the alternative Buddhist current, comes to the fore. On such subjects, we open new vistas based on the study of "bas-reliefs" pertaining to the inner gallery of the Bayon temple at Angkor. First, we determine some dating criteria which confirm that these bas-reliefs have been sculpted at the end of the Angkorian period. Then, looking at some of the iconographical subjects appearing here, we have been able to show the presence of the two latest Mahāyānic scenes known in Ancient Cambodian art and to underline the historical consequences of that fact : it proves that Mahāyāna Buddhism, which is usually said to have disappeared after the death of king Jayavarman VII, has in fact persisted after that. We have also noticed that these bas-reliefs are, on the whole, innovative and they prove that Indian contributions are not forsaken.

Flying Laser Range Sensor for Large-Scale Site-Modeling and Its Applications in Bayon Digital Archival Project

We have been conducting a project to digitize the Bayon temple, located at the center of Angkor-Thom in the kingdom of Cambodia. This is a huge structure, more than 150 meters long on all sides and up to 45 meters high. Digitizing such a large-scale object in fine detail requires developing new types of sensors for obtaining data of various kinds related to irregular positions such as the very high parts of the structure occluded from the ground. In this article, we present a sensing system with a moving platform, referred to as the Flying Laser Range Sensor (FLRS), for obtaining data related to these high structures from above them. The FLRS, suspended beneath a balloon, can be maneuvered freely in the sky and can measure structures invisible from the ground. The obtained data, however, has some distortion due to the movement of the sensor during the scanning process. In order to remedy this issue, we have developed several new rectification algorithms for the FLRS. One method is an extension of the 3D alignment algorithm to estimate not only rotation and translation but also motion parameters. This algorithm compares range data of overlapping regions from ground-based sensors and our FLRS. Another method accurately estimates the FLRS's position by combining range data and image sequences from a video camera mounted on the FLRS. We evaluate these algorithms using a IS-based method and verify that both methods achieve much higher accuracy than previous methods.

FEM modeling of the towers in Bayon temple in Cambodia based on micro-tremor measurements

Bayon temple, Angkor, Cambodia, built in 13th century, is a dry-masonry temple made of sandstone which has deteriorated possibly due to rain, plants, settlements, and so on. Moreover, we may add wind induced direct or via-ground vibration to the list of deterioration causes since strong winds of more than 20 m/s was observed, which will require us to evaluate structural responses to the wind excitation. Based on micro-tremor measurements, we identified predominant frequencies, damping factors and base-fixed frequencies of the main tower and sub-towers in the temple and neighboring Prasat Sour Prat towers; FEM models were constructed by simulating the base-fixed natural frequencies of the horizontal translational modes. During the simulation, we had to reduce the elastic modulus of sandstone to less than 1/10 of typical value, which may suggest that the continuum modeling of dry-masonry structures is inappropriate.

３次元映像情報メディア技術 ３次元モデルによるバイヨン寺院尊顔の解析と制作背景の考察

Digital 3D models of historic buildings or cultural heritage objects are useful for preservation.Such models can not only be stored permanently,but also supply us with clear guidelines for the restoration process.3D models also provide sufficient information about geometrical characteristics that are useful for inspecting and classifying objects.The Bayon temple,which consists of 52 towers,is one of the most well-known buildings of the Angkor monument in Cambodia.The temple is famous for its towers which have four faces at the four cardinal points. According to research performed by the Japanese government team for Safeguarding Angkor(JSA),the faces can be classified into three groups,Deva,Devata,and Asura,based on subjective criteria.We demonstrate a more objective way to classify the faces using measured 3D geometrical models created by a laser range sensor.

Vibration characteristics of the Bayon temple main tower, Angkor, Cambodia

Bayon temple, Angkor, built in the late 12th century to the early 13th century, is a masonry temple made of sandstone which has deteriorated possibly due to rain, plants, settlements, and so on. Strong winds blowing more than 20m/sec were observed in the rainy season, which may cause vibration of the structure either directly or via ground motion, we may add wind induced vibration to the list of deterioration causes. Proceeding to a study on the response of the masonry structure to the strong wind, we carried out a micro tremor measurement to evaluate the vibration characteristics of the main tower and surrounding sub-towers in the temple. We identified translational and torsion modes of towers with their predominant frequencies, damping factors, and base-fixed frequencies. We examined all of the sub-towers to find statistically the effects of height and corridor connectivity on their vibration characteristics. Then, we attempted to construct an FEM model for the main tower by simulating the base-fixed natural frequencies of the horizontal translational modes. The model with an elastic modulus practically used for sandstone shows much higher frequencies, which let us decrease the modulus to less than 1/10. We also find that this reduced stiffness model shows about a half the observed vertical translational frequency so as to suggest a lack of consistency with continuum modelling of basically discontinuous masonry structure.

This death in life: leprosy in Mishima Yukios Rai l no terasu and beyond

This article focuses on Mishima Yukio's late play Rai l no terasu (The Terrace of the Leper King), concerning the construction of the Bayon temple at Angkor Wat by Jayavarman VII, rumoured to have been a leper. In Mishima's retelling, the king's leprosy grows with the raising of the temple, he becomes blind as it nears completion and dies just as the project is finally completed. The last scene of the play is a dialogue between the soul of the dying king and his youthful body in which the body says that the soul itself is leprosy, while it, the unsullied body, truly represents the timeless beauty of Bayon. In this article I argue that Rai l no terasu represents a more thorough working out of the theme of leprosy to be found in many other works by Mishima. Leprosy is particularly rich in signification. As a disfiguring disease, long thought incurable though not fatal, it can stand for corruption of both soul and body, for divine affliction and for divine election. As such, it is a particularly effective metaphorical vehicle for Mishima's work and for his constant interrogation of the themes of beauty and ugliness, desire and death.