Batteries For Stationary Applications Research Articles

The energetic implications of introducing lithium-ion batteries into distributed photovoltaic systems

Batteries for stationary applications can prove to be crucial for enabling high penetration of solar energy, but production and use of batteries comes with an energetic cost.

A comparison of system architectures for high-voltage electric vehicle batteries in stationary applications

Abstract An increasing global interest in clean energy alternatives requires new concepts for local storage of electricity. This leads to new research demand regarding suitable system architectures based on high-voltage batteries from electric vehicles. In this study, a new method for evaluating stationary system architectures is described. The assessment focuses on the system efficiency of different architectures. A sensitivity analysis is included to show further distinctions in criteria such as volume, weight and cost. Three system topologies for the use of new and second-hand batteries extracted from electric vehicles in stationary applications are presented. All components need to be able to operate in a bidirectional mode — the ability to absorb and release electricity from and into the grid. The first two topologies include one battery connected to the grid either with a DC/DC converter and a DC/AC inverter or with a DC/AC inverter and a transformer. The third topology involves the connection of two batteries in series with a DC/AC inverter, providing better characteristics in terms of the required power electronic components. The results show differences between one to two percentage points in efficiency. Moreover, the influence of parallelisation and various power distributions delivers close to five percentage points higher efficiency for the first topology with a DC/DC converter. Combined with the outcome of the sensitivity analysis, the topology with the DC/DC converter connected to the DC/AC inverter exhibits the best performance in the overall evaluation criteria.

Calendar Aging of LiFePO4/Graphite Cells in a 250kW/500kWh Li-Ion Battery Stack Integrated in a Solar Farm

The worldwide large scale integration of renewable energies will require a large deployment of energy storage solutions. Lithium-ion batteries will be an ideal choice as stationary energy storage systems to be integrated with solar photovoltaics as the PVs can generate energy and the battery can store and deliver this energy on demand with a minimal cost to end users [1,2]. Unlike portable electronics and automotive applications, the batteries for stationary applications are not constrained by volume and weight. Therefore more attention can be turn on cost, safety and battery lifespan rather than on energy and power density. In this context LiFePO4/graphite Li-ion technology is a valid option for stationary applications as LiFePO4 presents lower voltage and energy density than conventional cathodes materials such as LiMO2 (M = Ni, Co, Mn) or spinel LiMn2O4, but it offers other advantages especially in terms of cost, safety and cycle life. This Li-ion technology has been chosen as energy storage system to equip the hybrid solar power generation/storage micro-grid system installed near Doha in Qatar. The purpose of this micro-grid is to investigate the feasibility of implementing renewable energies in an efficient way under the harsh climate conditions of Qatar. It also offers a unique opportunity for investigating the cycling conditions and aging behavior of Li-ion batteries, and providing statistics on a large number of cells. Generally, aging is studied in labs by screening various cycling and storage conditions on a limited number of cells. The effects of calendar aging LiFePO4/graphite cells strongly depend on the cell state of charge and on the storage temperature and are mostly affecting the negative graphite electrode [3-5]. In this study we analyze a complete battery stack after 3 years of storage at high state of charge. The battery stack is a BYD 250kW/500kWh Li-ion battery that contains 7 strings in parallel made of 168 LiFePO4/graphite cells in series. The whole system consists in power convert system (PCS), Li-ion battery, battery management system (BMS), fire protection system, lighting system, ventilation and air-conditioning system, and grounding system. Communication between PCS and SCADA system allows checking in real time and record data such as, voltage, current, temperature, SOC value, SOH value, and charge or discharge state at the battery, string and cell level. The first results show that the overall capacity of the battery has only been slightly affected by the aging. However, a very limited number of cells show significant damage due to self-discharge. Further results will be presented and discussed during the meeting.

Development of a benchmarking model for lithium battery electrodes

This paper presents a benchmarking model to enable systematic selection of anode and cathode materials for lithium batteries in stationary applications, hybrid and battery electric vehicles. The model incorporates parameters for energy density, power density, safety, lifetime, costs and raw materials. Combinations of carbon anodes, Li4Ti5O12 or TiO2 with LiFePO4 cathodes comprise interesting combinations for application in hybrid power trains. Higher cost and raw material prioritization of stationary applications hinders the breakthrough of Li4Ti5O12, while a combination of TiO2 and LiFePO4 is suggested. The favored combinations resemble state-of-the-art materials, whereas novel cell chemistries must be optimized for cells in battery electric vehicles. In contrast to actual research efforts, sulfur as a cathode material is excluded due to its low volumetric energy density and its known lifetime and safety issues. Lithium as anode materials is discarded due to safety issues linked to electrode melting and dendrite formation. A high capacity composite Li2MnO3·LiNi0.5Co0.5O2 and high voltage spinel LiNi0.5Mn1.5O4 cathode with silicon as anode material promise high energy densities with sufficient lifetime and safety properties if electrochemical and thermal stabilization of the electrolyte/electrode interfaces and bulk materials is achieved. The model allows a systematic top-down orientation of research on lithium batteries.

Secondary Use of PHEV and EV Lithium-Ion Batteries in Stationary Applications as Energy Storage System

This manuscript introduces and reviews the background, necessity, opportunities, and recent research progresses for investigating and applying the secondary use of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) and electric vehicles (EVs) lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries in stationary applications. And the motivation, objective, and plans of our PHEV/EV lithium-ion battery secondary-use program are also described in detail.

Development and field experience of monitoring system for valve-regulated lead–acid batteries in stationary applications

With ever-evolving information technology, it is becoming increasingly important to secure reliable back-up power supplies in telecommunications networks, data-processing facilities, utilities, etc. While valve-regulated lead–acid (VRLA) batteries are predominantly used nowadays, their diagnosis technology is not fully developed. As partial-discharge techniques require temporarily shutting-down of the system and also degrade battery life, manual testers based on an ohmic techniques have become popular. Accordingly, the Battery Condition Watcher (BCW) has been developed and commercialized. This is an automatic monitoring system with remote communication capabilities. It measures the internal impedance, voltage and temperature of individual cells or batteries with high accuracy. These parameters are subjected to data processing to enable diagnosis of battery conditions and life. Some aspects of field usage of the BCW are reported.

Lead–acid batteries in stationary applications: competitors and new markets for large penetration of renewable energies

With increasing deregulation of the European electricity market, the quality of supply is becoming an issue of growing importance. Grid-connected electricity storage systems (ESSs) can enhance the quality of supply by: (i) shortening black-out periods; (ii) shifting excess energy for use during periods of high demand; (iii) sustaining the grid for better power quality. These problems are being addressed by using technologies such as power electronics and ICT. But storage systems offer a cheap and efficient solution to such concerns. ESSs can also power high-value, ancillary services. This paper analyses the new potential markets for storage systems in the context of distributed energy resources with a high penetration of renewable energies in the electricity networks. While lead–acid batteries are the most used technology in all types of stationary applications, many different storage technologies are claimed to fulfil the technical requirements of the above applications, in particular the emerging ones. Therefore, a comparison is made of lead–acid technology and its competitors in terms of technical and economic considerations.

00/00289 International Lead Zinc Research Organization-sponsored field-data collection and analysis to determine relationships between service conditions and reliability of valve-regulated lead-acid batteries in stationary applications

00/00289 International Lead Zinc Research Organization-sponsored field-data collection and analysis to determine relationships between service conditions and reliability of valve-regulated lead-acid batteries in stationary applications

International Lead Zinc Research Organization-sponsored field-data collection and analysis to determine relationships between service conditions and reliability of valve-regulated lead–acid batteries in stationary applications

Abstract The International Lead Zinc Research Organization (ILZRO), in cooperation with Sandia National Laboratories, has initiated a multi-phase project with the following aims: to characterize relationships between valve-regulated lead–acid (VRLA) batteries, service conditions, and failure modes; to establish the degree of correlation between specific operating procedures and PCL; to identify operating procedures that mitigate PCL; to identify best-fits between the operating requirements of specific applications and the capabilities of specific VRLA technologies; to recommend combinations of battery design, manufacturing processes, and operating conditions that enhance VRLA performance and reliability. In the first phase of this project, ILZRO has contracted with Energetics to identify and survey manufacturers and users of VRLA batteries for stationary applications (including electric utilities, telecommunications companies, and government facilities). The confidential survey is collecting the service conditions of specific applications and performance records for specific VRLA technologies. From the data collected, Energetics is constructing a database of the service histories and analyzing the data to determine trends in performance for particular technologies in specific service conditions. ILZRO plans to make the final report of the analysis and a version of the database (that contains no proprietary information) available to ILZRO members, participants in the survey, and participants in a follow-on workshop for stakeholders in VRLA reliability. This paper presents the surveys distributed to manufacturers and end-users, discusses the analytic approach, presents an overview of the responses to the surveys and trends that have emerged in the early analysis of the data, and previews the functionality of the database being constructed.