Large-scale Battery Energy Storage Research Articles

Co-Regulating Solvation Structure and Hydrogen Bond Network via Bio-Inspired Additive for Highly Reversible ZincAnode.

The feasibility of aqueous zinc-ion batteries for large-scale energy storage is hindered by the inherent challenges of Zn anode. Drawing inspiration from cellular mechanisms governing metal ion and nutrient transport, erythritol is introduced, a zincophilic additive, into the ZnSO4 electrolyte. This innovation stabilizes the Zn anode via chelation interactions between polysaccharides and Zn2+. Experimental tests in conjunction with theoretical calculation results verified that the erythritol additive can simultaneously regulate the solvation structure of hydrated Zn2+ and reconstruct the hydrogen bond network within the solution environment. Additionally, erythritol molecules preferentially adsorb onto the Zn anode, forming a dynamic protective layer. These modifications significantly mitigate undesirable side reactions, thus enhancing the Zn2+ transport and deposition behavior. Consequently, there is a notable increase in cumulative capacity, reaching 6000mA h cm⁻2 at a current density of 5mA cm-2. Specifically, a high average coulombic efficiency of 99.72% and long cycling stability of >500 cycles are obtained at 2mA cm-2 and 1mA h cm-2. Furthermore, full batteries comprised of MnO2 cathode and Zn anode in an erythritol-containing electrolyte deliver superior capacity retention. This work provides a strategy to promote the performance of Zn anodes toward practical applications.

Stabilizing dual-cation liquid metal battery for large-scale energy storage: A comprehensive hybrid design approach

Liquid metal batteries (LMBs) hold immense promise for large-scale energy storage. However, normally LMBs are based on single type of cations (e.g., Ca2+, Li+, Na+), and as a result subject to inherent limitations associated with each type of single cation, such as the low energy density in Ca-based LMBs, the high energy cost in Li-based LMBs, and the short cycling lifespan in Na-based LMBs. Here we propose a dual-cation (Ca2+ and Li+) liquid metal battery, which allows access to, simultaneously, high energy density, prolonged cycling lifespan, reduced energy cost, and enhanced cycling stability. For this strategy to work, the main obstacle to overcome is the instability of the dual-cation system in electrochemical reactions. We have undertaken a hybrid design approach to resolve this issue, by integrating phase diagram design, first-principles calculations, and machine learning techniques. We discover that incorporating magnesium as an inert additive can effectively stabilize the cycling performance of dual-cation LMBs. Furthermore, our results reveal that specific ion ratios are required to release tailor dual-cation chemistry, to enable the designed multi-component alloy (Ca-Li-Mg in our case) electrode to function properly in LMBs. These findings are expected to have general implications for future developments of innovative LMBs with enhanced performance.

Low-cost H2/K+ hybrid batteries for large-scale energy storage

Rechargeable hydrogen gas batteries are gaining significant attention as a highly reliable electrochemical energy storage technology. However, the high costs of both cathode and anode limit their widespread applications. Here, we demonstrate a low-cost H2/K+ hybrid battery using Fe–Mn-based Prussian white - K2·74Mn[Fe(CN)6]0.90·0.13H2O (KMF) as cathode and non-noble metal high entropy alloy (NNM-HEA) as anode. It demonstrates a high capacity of 146.1 mAh g−1 at 1 A g−1 with excellent rate performance and stability. Even with a ∼7-fold increase in active loading of the KMF cathode, the capacity of the H2/K+ battery remains as high as 100.5 mAh g−1. Furthermore, a low-cost H2/K+ hybrid battery using our newly developed NNM-HEA based hydrogen catalytic anode is successfully fabricated, which shows an extended capacity with a retention of 90% after 1200 cycles. This work will pave the way for designing low-cost electrode materials for high-performance, large-scale energy storage hydrogen gas batteries.

Improved rule-based power distribution algorithm for hybrid battery storage systems and real-world validation

Large-scale battery energy storage systems (BESS) can serve many applications and are already widely used for grid services. The rapidly growing BESS market and the recent interest in their deployment accentuate the need for safe, reliable, and highly available energy management systems (EMS) for automated control. However, the EMS and their integrated power distribution algorithms (PDA) can still be optimized to adapt various characteristics of the BESS. This study investigates a new version of a PDA with a particular focus on battery aging and system efficiency. The rule-based PDA has been validated on a 6 MW/7.5 MWh BESS system with five battery technologies providing frequency containment reserve to the German power grid. The results underline the PDA's capability to exploit the individual strengths of each battery technology. The PDA sets objectives for the state of charge, energy throughput, and power of the batteries to extend battery life. The distribution of energy throughputs among batteries can be selected in advance through the new implementation of the PDA. At the same time, the inverters are significantly less often activated and used in the optimal efficiency range, increasing the overall system efficiency to approximately 82 %. The optimized switching behavior leads to less frequent power switching between individual battery units and longer phases with more constant power. In addition, the operational efficiency of BESS can be improved by the choice of battery technology and the overall system layout on the hardware side. The improvements on the software side are only possible by increasing the overall power requests through multi-use operation by about 6 % compared to our benchmark test. The results can be used by BESS operators to increase operational profits due to longer battery life and fewer efficiency losses.

Separator pore size induced oriented Zn deposition

Aqueous zinc batteries (AZBs) are promising alternatives to lead-acid batteries for large-scale energy storage. In this work, we developed a TiO2-grafted polyethylene (TiO2-PE) separator for AZBs with excellent hydrophilicity. The TiO2-PE separator demonstrates the thinnest thickness of 9 μm, significantly decreasing the inactive mass of the entire battery comparing with the commercial glass fiber separator (260 μm). We further prove that the separator pore size can modulate the Zn deposition morphology. The (002)-orientated Zn deposition is induced when the pore size is smaller than the crystal critical length. Therefore, the 0.2 μm pores in TiO2-PE induce a (002)-orientated Zn deposition, while the 2 μm pores in glass fiber lead to a randomly oriented growth of Zn metal. This work highlights the opportunities in the pore size-modulated deposition/dissolution process in Zn and other metal batteries.

Lithium-Ion Batteries on Board: A Review on Their Integration for Enabling the Energy Transition in Shipping Industry

The emission reductions mandated by International Maritime Regulations present an opportunity to implement full electric and hybrid vessels using large-scale battery energy storage systems (BESSs). lithium-ionion batteries (LIB), due to their high power and specific energy, which allows for scalability and adaptability to large transportation systems, are currently the most widely used electrochemical storage system. Hence, BESSs are the focus of this review proposing a comprehensive discussion on the commercial LIB chemistries that are currently available for marine applications and their potential role in ship services. This work outlines key elements that are necessary for designing a BESS for ships, including an overview of the regulatory framework for large-scale onboard LIB installations. The basic technical information about system integration has been summarized from various research projects, white papers, and test cases mentioned in available studies. The aim is to provide state-of-the-art information about the installation of BESSs on ships, in accordance with the latest applicable rules for ships. The goal of this study is to facilitate and promote the widespread use of batteries in the marine industry.

Alkaline-based aqueous sodium-ion batteries for large-scale energy storage

Aqueous sodium-ion batteries are practically promising for large-scale energy storage, however energy density and lifespan are limited by water decomposition. Current methods to boost water stability include, expensive fluorine-containing salts to create a solid electrolyte interface and addition of potentially-flammable co-solvents to the electrolyte to reduce water activity. However, these methods significantly increase costs and safety risks. Shifting electrolytes from near neutrality to alkalinity can suppress hydrogen evolution while also initiating oxygen evolution and cathode dissolution. Here, we present an alkaline-type aqueous sodium-ion batteries with Mn-based Prussian blue analogue cathode that exhibits a lifespan of 13,000 cycles at 10 C and high energy density of 88.9 Wh kg−1 at 0.5 C. This is achieved by building a nickel/carbon layer to induce a H3O+-rich local environment near the cathode surface, thereby suppressing oxygen evolution. Concurrently Ni atoms are in-situ embedded into the cathode to boost the durability of batteries.

Low-Cost and Sustainable Aqueous Lithium-Ion Batteries by All-Organic PTCDI Anodes

Electrolyte engineering has been key to the advancement of aqueous lithium-ion batteries (ALIBs), for example, the introduction of water-in-salt electrolytes (WiSEs) has enabled ALIBs to cycle well and to operate at potentials far beyond the electrochemical stability window of water. WiSEs are, however, intrinsically based on high concentrations of salt(s) which furthermore often are expensive and fluorinated, and therefore defeats the aim of ALIBs being low-cost and sustainable. Strategies to circumvent this issue have been to add co-solvents and/or diluents to decrease the overall electrolyte concentration or customize the anion and salt concentration to each battery chemistry. The clean and green ethos of ALIBs can be enhanced by using organic active materials (AMs), but these are unfortunately often water soluble and therefore requires an electrolyte designed to mitigate dissolution/electrode de-attachment.Herein, we for the first time implement perylene-3,4,9,10-tetracarboxylic diimide (PTCDI) as the anode AM for ALIBs. We demonstrate that by appropriate aqueous electrolyte selection we can truly mitigate electrode de-attachment, leading to excellent properties in terms of capacity, rate capability, cycling stability, and Coulombic efficiency. All things considered, this endeavour intends to further reduce the kWh/€ and thereby reinforcing the feasibility of more cost-effective large-scale battery energy storage solutions Fig 1. Long term galvanostatic cycling of an all-organic PTCDI electrode in a PTCDI/low conc. aqueous el./LFP cell set-up. Inset shows the chemical structure of PTCDI and the corresponding charge/discharge voltage curves. Figure 1

Optimal day-ahead large-scale battery dispatch model for multi-regulation participation considering full timescale uncertainties

Grid scale battery integration plays an important role in renewable energy integration and the formation of smart grid. To mitigate the problems of insufficient frequency response and peak regulation capacities faced by modern power grids with high wind energy uptake, a day-ahead optimization dispatch strategy considering operational risks is proposed in this study. In the day-ahead dispatch model, generation units and a large-scale battery energy storage station (LS-BESS) are coordinated to participate in multi-type frequency control ancillary services (FCASs). For optimal performance, scheduling in different timescales and the complementarity between power and energy types of requirements are coordinated, with various service uncertainties considered. Then the conditional value-at-risk theory is utilized to achieve the optimal mix of multiple resources for day-ahead regulation reserves, to realize the minimum operation cost. To tackle the uncertainty of wind power over a large timescale, a robust optimization (RO) approach based on the budget uncertainty set is employed, which considers robustness and economy. This can help avoid over-conservation of the standard RO and enhance the applicability of the decisions made. Simulation studies and comparison analysis of multiple schemes verify the effectiveness of the proposed optimal day-ahead dispatch strategy, which also demonstrate that a LS-BESS participating in multiple FCASs for day-ahead dispatch can help realize secure, reliable, and economic power grid.

Proton Activity and Pathway in Aqueous Organic Redox Flow Batteries

Aqueous soluble organic (ASO) redox-active materials have recently shown great promise as alternatives to transition metal ions employed as energy-bearing active materials in redox flow batteries for large-scale energy storage because of their structural tunability, cost-effectiveness, availability, and safety features. However, development so far has been limited to a small palette of organics that are aqueous soluble. This presentation will use fluorenone as an example to showcase how a natively redox-inactive molecule can be tuned to possess two-electron redox reversibility through hydrogenation and dehydrogenation. The modified fluorenone molecules demonstrated high energy density and recorded stable cycling. Furthermore, research has shown the kinetics of the redox reactions; thus, the system rate capabilities can be improved by incorporating suitable hydrogen acceptors that regulate the proton pathway for a faster redox reaction.Reference: Feng et al., Science 372, 836–840 (2021), Feng et al., submitted, 2022

Experimental study on efficiency improvement methods of vanadium redox flow battery for large-scale energy storage

All-vanadium redox flow battery (VRFB) is a promising large-scale and long-term energy storage technology. However, the actual efficiency of the battery is much lower than the theoretical efficiency, primarily because of the self-discharge reaction caused by vanadium ion crossover, hydrogen and oxygen evolution side reactions, vanadium metal precipitation and other operational factors. Based on the above analysis, this paper proposes effective strategies and methods for improving the efficiency of the VRFB. The experimental results indicate that the voltage efficiency and system efficiency increased by 1.86% and 0.48%, respectively, when constant flow rate and variable current density charge/discharge methods are used. Meanwhile, when variable flow rate and current density charge/discharge methods are employed, the energy efficiency and system efficiency increased by 9.07% and 8.34%, respectively, resulting in significant improvement in energy storage capacity. The experiment has verified that this method can improve the efficiency and performance of VRFB, and can promote the development of VRFB.

An Area Equalization Modulation Strategy for Multilevel Converter Used in Large-Scale Battery Energy Storage Application

In this paper, a fundamental switched area equalization modulation strategy (AEMS) is presented for a multilevel converter (MLC) used in large-scale battery-energy storage (BES) system. In this AEMS, the switching angles are computed online by equalizing the area under the reference voltage signal and carrier signal. In this BES system, the AEMS provides simple and reasonably good voltage harmonics performance for MLC. MATLAB/Simulink model of a 13-level cascaded H-bridge (13-level CHB) with storage is developed and implemented in real-time using OPAL-RT to validate the concept. Various performance results under steady-state and dynamic conditions are obtained and presented in detail.

Constructing Ionic Self-Concentrated Electrolyte via Introducing Montmorillonite Toward High-Performance Aqueous Zn-MnO2 Batteries.

Aqueous zinc metal batteries are regarded as one of the most promising alternatives to lithium-ion batteries for large-scale energy storage due to the abundant zinc resources, high safety, and low cost. Herein, an ionic self-concentrated electrolyte (ISCE) is proposed to enable uniform Zn deposition and reversible reaction of MnO2 cathode. Benefitting from the compatibility of ISCE with electrodes and its adsorption on the electrode surface for guidance, the Zn/Zn symmetrical batteries exhibit the long-life cycle stability with more than 5000 and 1500h at 0.2 and 5mA cm-2, respectively. The Zn/MnO2 battery also exhibits a high capacity of 351mA h g-1 at 0.1 A g-1 and can enable a stability over 2000 cycles at 1 A g-1. This work provides a new insight into electrolyte design for stable aqueous Zn-MnO2 battery.

An adaptive charge control strategy for participation of neighbourhood battery energy storage systems in frequency stability

Neighbourhood Battery Energy Storage System (N-BESS) is a new scale of energy storage that is expected to have a potential role in modern power systems stability. In the literature, there is a lack of studies that proposed a smart engagement of N-BESS in the frequency stability. In this paper, an adaptive charge control strategy for the N-BESS has been proposed to enhance the frequency stability while maintaining a fair State-of-Charge (SOC) levels for N-BESS. Also, a collaborative framework for large-scale Battery Energy Storage System (L-BESS) with N-BESS has been introduced, in which the N-BESS play an auxiliary role in frequency stability. In this study, a number of system uncertainties, including N-BESS SOC, load consumption, wind farm generation, and contingency size and location, have been considered. The simulation has been carried out in the Simplified 14-Generator Model of the South East Australian Power System over one-year simulation using DIgSILENT/PowerFactory software and Python interface. The results have demonstrated that a higher SOC levels of N-BESS under the proposed strategy have been maintained compared to that of the conventional strategy. Moreover, when the L-BESS collaborated with the N-BESS under the proposed framework, the best frequency stability with highest SOC levels of N-BESS have been obtained; at the same time less discharged power by the L-BESS was noted compared to that when the L-BESS participated individually which indicated that a smaller L-BESS size would be required if it collaborated with N-BESS in frequency stability service.

Day-ahead optimization dispatch strategy for large-scale battery energy storage considering multiple regulation and prediction failures

Day-ahead optimization dispatch strategy for large-scale battery energy storage considering multiple regulation and prediction failures

A resilience enhanced hierarchical strategy of battery energy storage for frequency regulation

Battery energy storage system (BESS) has been regarded as an effective technology to regulate system frequency for power systems. However, the cost and the system security of battery energy storage are the bottle necks for the battery energy storage system to be applied to practical projects for frequency regulation. Comparing with the large-scale battery energy storage system, the small-scale energy storage system has better robustness and could reduce the cost and improve the system security with lower energy capacity and wider regional distribution. However, coordinating the state of charge (SOC) of a large number of small-scale battery storage system to provide effective frequency regulation service is a challenge for the operation of power systems. In this paper, a hierarchical energy management strategy, which can be applied to different scenarios with and without limited communication systems, has been proposed to coordinate a large number of small-scale energy storage systems to regulate frequency for power systems. The rated power capacity, energy capacity, and SOC of the BESS are considered in the proposed strategy to maximize the capability of frequency regulation for power systems. The proposed strategy can be applied to power systems without powerful and expensive communication systems and coordinate BESS according to SOC of the BESS and the quality of communication system. The resilience of power systems after extreme natural events can be enhanced by the frequency regulation service of BESS under proposed strategy.

IANOS: Innovative energy storage solutions for the decarbonization of geographical islands

Geographical Islands experience harsh climate conditions resulting in diminished reliability of their grid. IANOS, a project funded by the European Commission, is developing technologies to overcome these challenges and allow for the secure decarbonisation of islands. The project will deploy and use storage technologies in two islands: Terceira, in Portugal, and Ameland, in the Netherlands. These include a 100kW/3kWh flywheel; thirty-five 2kW private fuel cells; sixteen 3kW/3kWh electrochemical batteries; two large-scale Battery Energy Storage System (BESS); a biobased saline battery of 120kWh; and twenty-four heat batteries of 3.5kWhth. These technologies, managed by an intelligent Virtual Power Plant (iVPP) also developed within the project, will be used for the maximisation of demand-side self-consumption, as well as for the provision of ancillary services, targeting the maximum economic and environmental benefit for the population and the island’s grid. In this paper, the specifications of each storage technology are described, as well as the impacts on the grid stability. The role of storage technologies in the decarbonisation of geographical islands will be emphasized.

Review of machine learning method for safety management of lithium-ion battery energy storage

With the broad implementation of electrochemical energy storage technology, the noteworthy issue of ensuring safe operation and maintenance of battery energy storage power plants has become more and more prominent. The conventional battery management system solely acquires data on the voltage, current, and temperature of individual battery cells. Constrained by hardware processing capabilities, limitations in data transmission bandwidth, and latency issues, effectively monitoring the health and safety of large-scale battery energy storage systems has become a critical technological challenge. The implementation of machine learning techniques in predicting the operating conditions of lithium-ion batteries has provided opportunities for enhancing the safety management of energy storage systems. To address the safety management requirements of lithium-ion batteries, this paper firstly introduces research related to the risk mechanism of abusive use and thermal runaway of such batteries. Next, the architecture and application characteristics of the lithium-ion battery management system will be discussed. The implementation of machine learning techniques for analyzing the health and safety status of lithium-ion batteries is extensively discussed. Finally, a safety assessment of lithium-ion batteries for energy storage power stations is anticipated.

Ultralow-Temperature Aqueous Conductive Polymer-Hydrogen Gas Battery.

Hydrogen gas batteries are regarded as one of the most promising rechargeable battery systems for large-scale energy storage applications due to their advantages of high rates and long-term cycle lives. However, the development of cost-effective and low-temperature-tolerant hydrogen gas batteries is highly desirable yet very challenging. Herein, we report a novel conductive polymer-hydrogen gas battery that is suitable for ultralow-temperature energy storage applications and consists of a hydrogen gas anode, a conductive polymer cathode using polyaniline (PANI) or polypyrrole as examples, and protonic acidic electrolytes. The PANI-H2 battery using 1 M H2SO4 as the electrolyte exhibits a capacity of 67 mA h/g, a remarkable rate up to 15 A/g, a Coulombic efficiency around 100%, and an ultra-long life of 10,000 cycles. Using the anti-freezing 9 M H3PO4 electrolyte, the PANI-H2 battery can operate well at temperatures down to -70 °C, which maintains ∼70% of the capacity at room temperature and shows an excellent cycle stability under -60 °C. Benefiting from the fast redox kinetics of both electrodes, this work demonstrates excellent rate performance and low-temperature feasibility of conductive polymer-H2 batteries, providing a new avenue for further development of low-cost and reliable polymer-H2 batteries for large-scale energy storage.

Research on the Frequency Regulation Strategy of Large-Scale Battery Energy Storage in the Power Grid System

Driven by the carbon peaking and carbon neutrality target, the large-scale grid-connected of renewable energy such as wind and solar has increased, and the volatility and randomness have posed new challenges to the stability of the power grid frequency. In this case, battery energy storage is a grid auxiliary resource with fast response and adjustable parameters, which can provide frequency support for the grid system in a short period. This paper studies the frequency regulation strategy of large-scale battery energy storage in the power grid system from the perspectives of battery energy storage, battery energy storage station, and battery energy storage system, respectively. First of all, the droop control based on logistic function and the virtual inertia control based on piecewise function are proposed for battery energy storage frequency regulation, which improves the performance of battery energy storage power output effectively. Second, the weighting factor is set according to the current battery charge to achieve the most optimal distribution of frequency regulation power for each battery pack in the battery energy storage station. In the end, a control framework for large-scale battery energy storage systems jointly with thermal power units to participate in system frequency regulation is constructed, and the proposed frequency regulation strategy is studied and analyzed in the EPRI-36 node model. The results of the study show that the proposed battery frequency regulation control strategies can quickly respond to system frequency changes at the beginning of grid system frequency fluctuations, which improves the stability of the new power system frequency including battery energy storage. In addition, this paper also provides a certain reference for the construction of the new power system dispatching that integrates “Generation-Grid-Load-Storage” in the future.