Bathing Water Standards Research Articles

Sustainable water resources through harvesting rainwater and the effectiveness of a low-cost water treatment

Increases in world population and climate change are some of the pressures affecting water resources for current and future water availability. The variability in water availability can reduce agricultural yields, food supplies and potentially leads to malnutrition and spread of diseases in water-poor countries. Even some water-rich countries can experience prolonged periods of dry weather, causing a drop in water reservoirs levels, forcing more restricted water resources management. Rainwater harvesting is one key option in adapting to water shortage and future demands that may alleviate the pressure on existing water resources. This work evaluates a roof top rainwater harvesting system (RWHS) installed as part of a decentralised wastewater treatment system designed to enable a circular economy by providing a more reliable water supply system in a remote public school in rural India. The effectiveness of the RWHS in reducing the pressure on a groundwater supply was assessed along with the physical, chemical and microbial characteristics of the stored rainwater over time. Further, the application of a low-cost primary treatment to make the harvested water safe to use for multiple purposes was investigated. The results revealed that the harvested water was of acceptable quality at the start of collection, however, microbial abundance increased when the rainwater was stored for a long time without treatment. Thus, a chlorine dosing regimen for the RWHS was designed based on laboratory and field experiments. The results also demonstrated that the low-cost chlorination process was effective in the field in reducing microbial abundance in the stored water for more than 30 days. However, as the residual chlorine level was reduced with time to <0.2 mg/l in the storage vessel, the microbial abundance increased, albeit to a much lower level that meets the Indian bathing water standards. The results provide evidence that installed RWHS has reduced the pressure on existing water supply at the school by up to 25% of the water that used for washing and flushing with no treatment, and with regular chlorination, greater savings and multiple uses of the stored rainwater can be achieved.

Integrated hydro-bacterial modelling for predicting bathing water quality

In recent years health risks associated with the non-compliance of bathing water quality have received increasing worldwide attention. However, it is particularly challenging to establish the source of any non-compliance, due to the complex nature of the source of faecal indicator organisms, and the fate and delivery processes and scarcity of field measured data in many catchments and estuaries. In the current study an integrated hydro-bacterial model, linking a catchment, 1-D model and 2-D model were integrated to simulate the adsorption-desorption processes of faecal bacteria to and from sediment particles in river, estuarine and coastal waters, respectively. The model was then validated using hydrodynamic, sediment and faecal bacteria concentration data, measured in 2012, in the Ribble river and estuary, and along the Fylde coast, UK. Particular emphasis has been placed on the mechanism of faecal bacteria transport and decay through the deposition and resuspension of suspended sediments. The results showed that by coupling the E.coli concentration with the sediment transport processes, the accuracy of the predicted E.coli levels was improved. A series of scenario runs were then carried out to investigate the impacts of different management scenarios on the E.coli concentration levels in the coastal bathing water sites around Liverpool Bay, UK. The model results show that the level of compliance with the new EU bathing water standards can be improved significantly by extending outfalls and/or reducing urban sources by typically 50%.

The Relationship between Hydro-Climatic Variables and &lt;em&gt;E. coli&lt;/em&gt; Concentrations in Surface and Drinking Water of the Kabul River Basin in Pakistan

Microbial water contamination is a risk for human health, as it causes waterborne diseases like diarrhea. <em>E. coli</em> is a faecal indicator microorganism. Climate variables, such as temperature and precipitation, influence <em>E. coli</em> concentrations in surface and drinking water resources. We measure and statistically analyse <em>E. coli </em>concentrations in drinking and surface water in the Kabul River Basin. <em>E. coli</em> concentrations are very high in the basin. Drinking and bathing water standards are violated. Water temperature, surface air temperature, discharge and precipitation were positively correlated with <em>E. coli</em> concentrations. Precipitation induced runoff transports of <em>E. coli</em> from agricultural lands to Kabul River and high temperature coincides with high precipitation and discharge. A linear regression model was developed to assess the net effect of the climate variables on <em>E. coli</em> concentrations. We found that climate variables accounted for more than half of the observed variation in <em>E. coli</em> concentrations in surface (R² = 0.61) and drinking water (R² = 0.55). This study indicates that increased precipitation together with higher surface air temperature, as expected in this region with climate change, were significantly correlated with increased <em>E. coli</em> concentrations in the future. Waterborne pathogens are expected to respond similarly to hydro-climatic changes, indicating that disease outbreaks could well become more frequent and severe.

The Relationship between Hydro-Climatic Variables and &lt;em&gt;E. coli&lt;/em&gt; Concentrations in Surface and Drinking Water of the Kabul River Basin in Pakistan

Microbial water contamination is a risk for human health, as it causes waterborne diseases like diarrhea. E. coli is a faecal indicator microorganism. Climate variables, such as temperature and precipitation, influence E. coli concentrations in surface and drinking water resources. We measure and statistically analyse E. coli concentrations in drinking and surface water in the Kabul River Basin. E. coli concentrations are very high in the basin. Drinking and bathing water standards are violated. Water temperature, surface air temperature, discharge and precipitation were positively correlated with E. coli concentrations. Precipitation induced runoff transports of E. coli from agricultural lands to Kabul River and high temperature coincides with high precipitation and discharge. A linear regression model was developed to assess the net effect of the climate variables on E. coli concentrations. We found that climate variables accounted for more than half of the observed variation in E. coli concentrations in surface (R2 = 0.61) and drinking water (R2 = 0.55). This study indicates that increased precipitation together with higher surface air temperature, as expected in this region with climate change, were significantly correlated with increased E. coli concentrations in the future. Waterborne pathogens are expected to respond similarly to hydro-climatic changes, indicating that disease outbreaks could well become more frequent and severe.

Sea water quality assessment of Prince Islands’ Beaches in Istanbul

In this study, seawater samples were subjected to microbiological and physicochemical analysis (water temperature, pH, Secchi disc depth and ammonia) in the Prince Islands which are located in Marmara Sea, being one of the most popular swimming areas in Istanbul. The monitoring program of the study has been carried out in the summer for 6weeks at eight stations around the Prince Islands. Measured total coliform values were between 5 ± 2 and 26 ± 55 and faecal coliform values were between 4 ± 2 and 24 ± 50 in the monitoring stations. A statistical study has been conducted to find the relationship between total and faecal coliform concentrations, and t tests were applied. There was no significant difference in each location of the Islands, except one location. The results were evaluated by comparing with national and EU bathing water standards. Results of the study show that deep sea discharges and sea currents contribute dilution of coliform concentration in a positive way, and locations near coastal zones of the islands have acceptable values which are required by the regulations.

Do 2006/7/EC European Union Bathing Water Standards exclude the risk of contact with Salmonella or Candida albicans?

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the efficiency of the recent (2006) European Union Directive concerning the management of bathing water quality to exclude the presence of pathogens from complying waters. Coastal water samples were classified according to the Directive. 2.5% of ‘excellent’ water contained Salmonella and 39.2% Candida albicans 11.8% of samples in category ‘good’ were Salmonella positive and 35.2% were C. albicans positive. When the USEPA criterion for marine waters was applied to the same dataset, fewer samples complied, however 6.0% of the complying samples contained Salmonella. The results suggest that the bacterial indicator threshold levels for marine recreational water quality of the 2006/7/EC European Union Directive do not fully exclude contact of bathers with dangerous pathogens. Enterococci, if used as the sole index, appear to form a more reliable proxy of the risk of contact with Salmonella.

Cercarial dermatitis in the Netherlands caused by Trichobilharzia spp.

Outbreaks of cercarial dermatitis which occurred in recreational lakes in the Netherlands were studied and a method for direct rapid detection of the parasite Trichobilharzia in water samples was developed. A standardized questionnaire with questions on health complaints and exposure was distributed to individuals who developed symptoms of cercarial dermatitis after visiting fresh water lakes. Snails from the suspected lakes were examined for the presence of Trichobilharzia by microscopy and PCR. Water samples were concentrated by filtration and examined by PCR. Water quality was tested according to European Bathing Water Directive 76/160/EEG. Trichobilharzia was detected in snails and water samples from lakes which met European bathing water standards. Despite a response of 25.5%, epidemiological data suggested that longer and more frequent exposure to the water resulted in increased reporting of symptoms of cercarial dermatitis and confirmed the importance of exposure as a risk factor. A novel method for direct detection of Trichobilharzia, which includes concentration of water samples by filtration and detection of the parasite by PCR proved to be a valuable and simple tool for confirmation of presumptive outbreaks, particularly when snails could not be found in the suspected water and public health protecting measures were necessary.

Riparian wetlands for enhancing the self-purification capacity of streams

Best Management Practices (BMPs) are increasingly used to restore river water quality but design guidance is limited. An alternative approach to remediating diffuse pollution loads is to identify the most polluting high flows from pollutographs and hydrographs and spill these flows into riparian treatment wetlands for treatment before drainage back into the watercourse. The approach is demonstrated for two contrasting catchments in Scotland impacted by diffuse pollution. The Caw Burn receives industrial estate drainage with high suspended solids, hydrocarbons, BOD and ammoniacal-nitrogen concentrations. Applying the proposed design criteria demonstrated that the existing retrofit BMP system at the site is undersized (4950 m2) compared to the required wetland area (11,800 m2), but accommodating the additional area is likely to be expensive. The second case-study is Brighouse Bay where bathing waters are impacted by faecal indicator organisms derived primarily from livestock runoff. In this catchment the riparian wetland area required to retain runoff so that E. coli bacteria would die-off to concentrations below bathing water standards was estimated to be 3-6ha (0.5-1% of catchment area). Further refinement and testing of the design approach is required, including consideration of other factors such as vegetation type, ownership and maintenance, to develop a more holistic approach to river restoration.

Coastal Water Quality Impact of Stormwater Runoff from an Urban Watershed in Southern California

Field studies were conducted to assess the coastal water quality impact of stormwater runoff from the Santa Ana River, which drains a large urban watershed located in southern California. Stormwater runoff from the river leads to very poor surf zone water quality, with fecal indicator bacteria concentrations exceeding California ocean bathing water standards by up to 500%. However, cross-shore currents (e.g., rip cells) dilute contaminated surf zone water with cleaner water from offshore, such that surf zone contamination is generally confined to < 5 km around the river outlet. Offshore of the surf zone, stormwater runoff ejected from the mouth of the river spreads out over a very large area, in some cases exceeding 100 km2 on the basis of satellite observations. Fecal indicator bacteria concentrations in these large stormwater plumes generally do not exceed California ocean bathing water standards, even in cases where offshore samples test positive for human pathogenic viruses (human adenoviruses and enteroviruses) and fecal indicator viruses (F+ coliphage). Multiple lines of evidence indicate that bacteria and viruses in the offshore stormwater plumes are either associated with relatively small particles (< 53 microm) or not particle-associated. Collectively, these results demonstrate that stormwater runoff from the Santa Ana River negatively impacts coastal water quality, both in the surf zone and offshore. However, the extent of this impact, and its human health significance, is influenced by numerous factors, including prevailing ocean currents, within-plume processing of particles and pathogens, and the timing, magnitude, and nature of runoff discharged from river outlets over the course of a storm.

Sustainable reduction in the flux of microbial compliance parameters from urban and arable land use to coastal bathing waters by a wetland ecosystem produced by a marine flood defence structure

‘Natural’ treatment systems such as wetlands and reed beds have been proposed as sustainable means of reducing fluxes of faecal indicator organisms (FIOs) to recreational and shellfish harvesting waters. This is because FIO fluxes to coastal waters from both point (effluent) and diffuse (catchment) sources can cause non-compliance with microbiological standards for bathing and shellfish harvesting waters. The Water Framework Directive requires competent authorities in the member states to manage both point and diffuse sources of FIOs in an integrated manner to achieve compliance with ‘good’ water quality as defined in a series of daughter Directives. This study was undertaken to investigate the relative sources of FIOs to the popular bathing waters around Clacton, UK. In this predominantly arable (mainly cereal cropping) farming area, the principal land use predictor, explaining 76% of the variance in geometric mean presumptive Escherichia coli concentration at sub-catchment outlets during the bathing season, was the proportion of built-up (i.e. urbanised) land in each sub-catchment. This new finding contrasts with earlier studies in livestock farming regions where the proportion of improved grassland has proven to be the strongest predictor of microbial concentration. Also novel in this investigation, a flood defence wall has been built creating a wetland area which discharges every tidal cycle. The wetland produces over 97% reduction in the flux and concentrations of FIOs to the marine recreational waters. Also, FIO concentrations in water draining through the wetland to the sea were similar to concentrations measured in six UK sewage treatment plant effluents subject to secondary (biological) treatment followed by UV disinfection.

Reducing sewage pollution in the Antarctic marine environment using a sewage treatment plant

Despite Antarctica being the largest pristine wilderness on Earth, many coastal Antarctic research stations release untreated sewage waste into the marine environment, which may have negative effects on local wildlife. In February 2003 a sewage treatment plant was installed at Rothera Research Station (Adelaide Island, Antarctic Peninsula). After one year of operation the sewage treatment plant had dramatically reduced the microbiological pollution in the near-shore marine environment around the outfall and seawater quality conformed to European Union Bathing Water Standards.

Generation of enterococci bacteria in a coastal saltwater marsh and its impact on surf zone water quality.

Elevated levels of enterococci bacteria, an indicator of fecal pollution, are routinely detected in the surf zone at Huntington State and City Beaches in southern California. A multidisciplinary study was carried out to identify sources of enterococci bacteria landward of the coastline. We find that enterococci bacteria are present at high concentrations in urban runoff, bird feces, marsh sediments, and on marine vegetation. Surprisingly, urban runoff appears to have relatively little impact on surf zone water quality because of the long time required for this water to travel from its source to the ocean. On the other hand, enterococci bacteria generated in a tidal saltwater marsh located near the beach significantly impact surf zone water quality. This study identifies a potential tradeoff between restoring coastal wetlands and protecting beach water quality and calls into question the use of ocean bathing water standards based on enterococci at locations near coastal wetlands.

Environmental health aspects of coastal bathing water standards in the UK

Over 300 million gallons of sewage are discharged into the sea around the coastline of Britain each year. Raw or partially treated sewage contains a mixture of micro‐biological species, some of which are pathogens linked to many diseases. The most common gastro‐intestinal infections occur via the faecal‐oral route. A bather or water sports enthusiast could ingest enough pathogenic micro‐organisms from sewage contaminated sea water to cause illness. Legislation has been passed requiring the quality of bathing water to be tested so as to assess the risks to human health. Standards within the EC Bathing Water Directive remain above the level found to cause risks to human health, despite the existence of economically viable and environmentally sustainable technologies which would ensure safe levels in waste water discharges. Therefore even beaches which meet the standards of the Directive may not be as safe as they appear. This paper attempts to address the issue of Bathing Water Standards. It raises the questions of why standards are so low and looks at what is being done to improve coastal bathing water quality in the UK.

Risk of gastroenteritis among triathletes in relation to faecal pollution of fresh waters.

We conducted a prospective cohort study among endurance athletes to investigate the effects of microbiological water quality on the risk of gastroenteritis after bathing in fresh waters that meet current water quality standards. We aimed to establish quantitative relationships, in order to evaluate current bathing water standards. The study was spread over two summers, during which 827 triathletes (swimmers) in seven Olympic distance triathlons and 773 participants in 15 run-bike-runs (non-swimming controls) participated. Intensive water quality monitoring was used to assess exposure to faecal indicator organisms and detailed questionnaires were used to collect data on the occurrence of health complaints and potential confounding factors. The microbiological water quality at the time of the triathlons met current Dutch and European bathing water standards. Dependent on the case definition studied, gastroenteritis developed in 0.4-5.2% of swimmers and 0.1-2.1% of non-swimmers in the week following exposure (odds ratio [OR] = 1.6-2.3). Attack rates and burden of disease varied with the case definition used. Among swimmers, the attack rate of gastroenteritis was significantly increased when the geometric mean concentration of thermotolerant coliforms in the water at the time of exposure was > or = 220/100 ml or the geometric mean concentration of Escherichia coli was > or = 355/100 ml (OR comparing high versus low exposure 2.9-4.7 dependent on the case definition studied). Thermotolerant coliform concentrations at these triathlons ranged from 100/100 ml (the EU guide level) to 960/100 ml (the EU imperative level is 2000/100 ml). Below the threshold levels attack rates were comparable with attack rates among non-swimmers. A relation with other indicators of faecal pollution was not observed. We observed that swimming in fresh waters that met the European imperative level for thermotolerant coliforms but failed the European guide level was associated with a significant risk of gastroenteritis among triathletes. This means that the current European imperative level for thermotolerant coliforms provides insufficient protection to gastrointestinal illness for those who are comparable with triathletes.

Risk of otitis externa after swimming in recreational fresh water lakes containing Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

To determine whether an outbreak of otitis externa was due to bathing in recreational fresh water lakes and to establish whether the outbreak was caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa in the water. Matched case-control study. The Achterhoek area, the Netherlands. 98 cases with otitis externa and 149 controls matched for age, sex, and place of residence. Odds ratios for type of swimming water and frequency of swimming; presence of P aeruginosa in ear swabs and fresh water lakes. Otitis externa was strongly associated with swimming in recreational fresh water lakes in the previous two weeks (odds ratio 15.5 (95% confidence interval) 4.9 to 49.2) compared with non-swimming). The risk increased with the number of days of swimming, and subjects with recurrent ear disease had a greatly increased risk. The lakes met the Dutch bathing water standards and those set by the European Commission for faecal pollution in the summer of 1994, but P aeruginosa was isolated from all of them, as well as from the ear swabs of 78 (83%) of the cases and 3 (4%) of the controls. Even when current bathing water standards are met, swimming can be associated with a substantial risk of otitis externa because of exposure to P aeruginosa. People with recurrent ear disease should take special care when swimming in waters containing P aeruginosa.

Predicting likelihood of gastroenteritis from sea bathing: results from randomised exposure

SummaryThe health effects of bathing in coastal waters is an area of scientific controversy. We conducted the first ever randomised "trial" of an environmental exposure to measure the health effects of this activity. The trial was spread over four summers in four UK resorts and 1216 adults took part. Detailed interviews were used to collect data on potential confounding factors and intensive water quality monitoring was used to provide more precise indices of exposure. 548 people were randomised to bathing, and the exposure included total immersion of the head. Crude rates of gastroenteritis were significantly higher in the exposed group (14·8 per 100) than the unexposed group (9·7 per 100; p=0·01).Linear trend and multiple logistic regression techniques were used to establish relations between gastroenteritis and microbiological water quality. Of a range of microbiological indicators assayed only faecal streptococci concentration, measured at chest depth, showed a significant dose-response relation with gastroenteritis. Adverse health effects were identified when faecal streptococci concentrations exceeded 32 per 100 mL. This relation was independent of non-water-related predictors of gastroenteritis.We do not suggest that faecal streptococci caused the excess of gastrointestinal symptoms in sea bathers but these microorganisms do seem to be a better indicator of water quality than the traditional coliform counts. Bathing water standards should be revised with these findings in mind.

Dye trace and bacteriological testing of sinkholes: Sulphur Springs, Tampa, Florida

This paper summarizes over four years of studies and testing of a sinkhole/spring system in north Tampa. Sulphur Springs Pool delivers an average of 95 million l/d to the Hillsborough River, which is tributary to Tampa Bay. In 1986, owing to increasingly erratic bacterial levels at the natural bathing area adjacent to Sulphur Springs, the Hillsborough County Health Department closed the pool for swimming. The City of Tampa, Southwest Florida Water Management District (SWFWMD), Hillsborough County Environmental Protection Commission, and the United States Geological Survey have gathered data in an attempt to better understand the system and possible sources of contamination. The Sulphur Springs Action League is a civic group in the area, which has an objective of reopening the pool for recreational purposes. Environmental Engineering Consultants, Inc. provided pro bono technical assistance and expertise in assisting the Action League with its goal. The Action League obtained a grant from SWFWMD to outfit underwater divers for sinkhole exploration as well as water quality and dye trace analysis. The main suspects for bacterial contamination of the pool were two significant sinkholes located 1950 and 2300 m north of the spring. A series of dye tests and water-quality tests were performed. It was estimated that the underground velocity of water was between 90–100 m/h. Using a dye trace, bacteria testing, and travel time estimating, a new source of contamination was found in a Department of Transportation (DOT) stormwater retention basin in which a sinkhole had opened up and was receiving stormwater. The two significant sinkholes received stormwater from commercial and residential areas, and this stormwater brings a large amount of bacteria into the sinkhole, which funnels into the underground system and induces a bacteria spike at Sulphur Springs pool that exceeds the bathing water standards. The City of Tampa has constructed an experimental initial flush capture basin that will sand-filter stormwater to see if this will favorably affect bacteria levels. A mayor's task force in Tampa has recommended ultraviolet disinfection as an interim solution to the contamination problem.

Faecal streptococci as faecal pollution indicators: A review. Part I: Taxonomy and enumeration

Abstract The faecal streptococci are the most commonly used alternative or adjunct to coliform bacteria as faecal pollution indicators. They are a group of coccoid bacteria, naturally inhabiting the gut of warm‐blooded animals and humans. Their potential as faecal pollution indicators was recognised in the 1890s, but it was 50 years before the accumulated knowledge of their taxonomy and sanitary significance, together with the development of isolation and enumeration methods, allowed their practical application in water pollution research and management. There is still much disagreement over the classification of the group. Many workers now place some species in a separate genus, Enterococcus, and it is likely that this revised nomenclature will be incorporated into the next edition of Bergey ‘s Manual. Of the enumeration methods available (plate count, MPN, and membrane filtration), the mE‐EIA membrane filtration method, which recovers enterococci (a subset of faecal streptococci) is probably the most important, because it is the basis of current United States Environmental Protection Agency recommendations on bathing water standards. However, there appears to be no universally accepted “best method” for the isolation of faecal streptococci from natural waters. Biochemical and serological identification methods are commercially available, and research has begun into the use of DNA‐based techniques for identifying faecal streptococcal strains and faecal sources.

Epidemiological Study of Beach Water Pollution and Health-Related Bathing Water Standards in Hong Kong

A prospective epidemiological study was undertaken in Hong Kong in 1987, in which 18,741 usable responses were obtained. It showed bathing in the coastal beaches of Hong Kong poses an increased risk of developing gastrointestinal, ear, eye, skin, respiratory and total illness. Swimmers immersed in the more polluted beach waters are exposed to a significantly higher risk of contracting swimming-associated gastrointestinal, skin, respiratory and total illness. E. coli was found to be the best indicator for swimming-associated gastroenteritis and skin symptoms amongst the bathers, and a linear relationship could be established. Staphylococci was a good indicator for ear, respiratory and total illness, and should be used in complementary to E. coli. Beach water quality objectives for both E. coli and staphylococci have been proposed. A 4-tier classification system (rather than a single acceptability criterion) based on swimming-associated health risks has been developed for the beaches of Hong Kong. Information on the bacterial water quality and health risk levels of individual beaches is reported to the public both annually and fortnightly, so that beach-goers can choose where to go for swimming based on health effects data.

The EEC bathing water directive

In June 1977 the French Minister of Culture and the Environment and the Minister of Health and Social Security made it known bacteriological tests on French bathing beaches had shown 77°70 to be of very good or good quality, 19070 of average quality and 4070 of poor quality. Three weeks later, the Central Press Agency of Paris had ferreted out a complete list of the unsatisfactory beaches, 28 of them in all at 23 coastal resorts, and this list was published in the French press and in the Times of 7 July 1977. From 1980 onwards this kind of bacteriological grading of bathing beaches will figure in the reports on bathing waters all member states of the community must submit to the Commission at regular intervals. By then also, no doubt, the tourist interests of the different countries will, in the spirit of fair competition embodied in the Treaty of Rome, blazon abroad their high percentage of good quality beaches and question the validity of competitors' bathing water rankings. The four grades of bathing water quality cited in the French statement are based on conformity or failure to conform to the requirements of the EEC Council 'Directive of 8 December 1975 concerning the quality of bathing water'. This Directive has already been strongly criticized by Lord Ashby (in 1975) because of the spurious uniformity it seeks to impose on bathing beaches from the Mediterranean to the north of Scotland, and also for the enormous cost of implementing it when no significant health hazard from sea bathing has so far been demonstrated. In Britain, the Directive also invites critical scrutiny for another reason. Here, the conclusion based on extensive work over two decades bathing water standards were irrelevant and impracticable has been generally accepted for many years past. Has this been a misguided view? The background to the EEC Directive and its technical aspects are scrutinized from this standpoint in what follows. Perhaps the first significant point emerges from the preamble to the Directive is the EEC was committed to bathing water standards before these were discussed at expert level. The programme of action of the European Communities, promulgated in 1973, included a provision that quality objectives are to be jointly drawn up fixing the various requirements which an environment must meet, inter alia the definition of parameters for water, including bathing water. How to define water quality objectives was the subject of a Service committee studied bathing water contamination in British coastal waters in the nineteen-fifties. He has acted as rapporteur at W H O expert meetings on bathing water hygiene. He is now Chairman of the Joint Committee on the Medical Aspects of Water Quality was set up in 1976 by the Department of Health and Social Security and the Department of the Environment.