Basic Vision Research Articles

Development and challenges of object detection: A survey

Object detection is a basic vision task that accompanies people’s daily lives all the time. The development of object detection technology has experienced an evolution from traditional-based algorithms to deep learning-based algorithms, which has made a qualitative leap in both detection accuracy and detection speed. With the advancement of deep learning, object detection techniques are increasingly becoming a part of everyday life, with the YOLO series of algorithms being extensively applied in various industries. In this paper, we initially present the frequently utilized datasets and evaluation criteria for object detection. Subsequently, we delve into the evolution of traditional object detection algorithms, highlighting two-stage and one-stage approaches through illustrative examples of classical methods. We also conduct a comprehensive summary and analysis of the detection results obtained by these methods. In addition, we introduce object detection applications in daily life, as well as the importance and some difficulties of these applications. Finally, we analyze and summarize the difficulties and challenges facing the task of object detection, and we look forward to the future development direction of object detection.

The colexification of vision and cognition in Mandarin: controlled activity surpasses uncontrolled experience

Abstract Given the colexification of perception and cognition, Georgakopoulos et al. (2022. Universal and macro-areal patterns in the lexicon: A case-study in the perception-cognition domain. Linguistic Typology 26(2). 439–487) claim that uncontrolled experience rather than controlled activity has a direct linkage to cognition. To test whether this is a universal tendency, this study conducts a contrastive behavioral profile analysis of two basic vision verbs in Mandarin: kàn, a controlled activity verb, and jiàn, an uncontrolled experience verb. The results show that (i) both kàn and jiàn colexify visual activity and cognitive senses; (ii) kàn is able to express a wider range of cognitive meanings, i.e., know, understand, and think, whereas jiàn only extends into know; and (iii) visual and cognitive meanings have more proximal relationships in the colexification pattern of kàn than that of jiàn. The study confirms the universality of the colexification between vision and cognition while providing counterexamples to the above-mentioned large data-based findings. Accordingly, a dichotomy of controlled activity versus uncontrolled experience is proposed for the colexification of vision and cognition in cognitive typology.

Individual differences in human gaze behavior generalize from faces to objects

Individuals differ in where they fixate on a face, with some looking closer to the eyes while others prefer the mouth region. These individual biases are highly robust, generalize from the lab to the outside world, and have been associated with social cognition and associated disorders. However, it is unclear, whether these biases are specific to faces or influenced by domain-general mechanisms of vision. Here, we juxtaposed these hypotheses by testing whether individual face fixation biases generalize to inanimate objects. We analyzed >1.8 million fixations toward faces and objects in complex natural scenes from 405 participants tested in multiple labs. Consistent interindividual differences in fixation positions were highly inter-correlated across faces and objects in all samples. Observers who fixated closer to the eye region also fixated higher on inanimate objects and vice versa. Furthermore, the inter-individual spread of fixation positions scaled with target size in precisely the same, non-linear manner for faces and objects. These findings contradict a purely domain-specific account of individual face gaze. Instead, they suggest significant domain-general contributions to the individual way we look at faces, a finding with potential relevance for basic vision, face perception, social cognition, and associated clinical conditions.

Comparison of retinal parameters between rhesus and cynomolgus macaques.

Nonhuman primates are important research models for basic vision research, preclinical pathogenesis, and treatment studies due to strong similarities in retinal structure and function with humans. We compared retinal parameters between 10 healthy normal rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) and 10 cynomolgus macaques (Macaca fascicularis) by optical coherence tomography and electroretinography. The Heidelberg Spectralis® HRA+OCT and Roland multifocal electrophysiometer were used to analyze retinal morphology, multifocal electroretinograms (mfERGs), and full-field electroretinograms (ff-ERGs). Mean retinal thickness was lowest in the central fovea of macaques and did not differ significantly between species, but the retinal thicknesses of the nerve fiber ganglion cell layer and the inner plexiform layer were significantly different. The amplitude density of the N1 wave was lower in rhesus macaques than in cynomolgus macaques in ring and quadrant areas. Dark-adapted 3.0 oscillatory potentials (reflection of amacrine cell activity) and light-adapted 30-hz flicker ERG (a sensitive cone-pathway-driven response) waveforms of the ff-ERG were similar in both species, while the times to peaks in dark-adapted 0.01 ERG (the rod-driven response of bipolar cells) and dark-adapted 3.0 ERG (combined rod and cone system responses) as well as the implicit times of the a- and b-waves in light-adapted 3.0 ERG (the single-flash cone response) were substantially different. This study provides normative retinal parameters for nonhuman primate research on basic and clinical ophthalmology, as well as a reference for researchers in the appropriate selection of rhesus or cynomolgus macaques as models for ophthalmology studies.

The Effect of Interocular Contrast Differences on the Appearance of Augmented Reality Imagery

Augmented reality (AR) devices seek to create compelling visual experiences that merge virtual imagery with the natural world. These devices often rely on wearable near-eye display systems that can optically overlay digital images to the left and right eyes of the user separately. Ideally, the two eyes should be shown images with minimal radiometric differences (e.g., the same overall luminance, contrast, and color in both eyes), but achieving this binocular equality can be challenging in wearable systems with stringent demands on weight and size. Basic vision research has shown that a spectrum of potentially detrimental perceptual effects can be elicited by imagery with radiometric differences between the eyes, but it is not clear whether and how these findings apply to the experience of modern AR devices. In this work, we first develop a testing paradigm for assessing multiple aspects of visual appearance at once, and characterize five key perceptual factors when participants viewed stimuli with interocular contrast differences. In a second experiment, we simulate optical see-through AR imagery using conventional desktop LCD monitors and use the same paradigm to evaluate the multi-faceted perceptual implications when the AR display luminance differs between the two eyes. We also include simulations of monocular AR systems (i.e., systems in which only one eye sees the displayed image). Our results suggest that interocular contrast differences can drive several potentially detrimental perceptual effects in binocular AR systems, such as binocular luster, rivalry, and spurious depth differences. In addition, monocular AR displays tend to have more artifacts than binocular displays with a large contrast difference in the two eyes. A better understanding of the range and likelihood of these perceptual phenomena can help inform design choices that support high-quality user experiences in AR.

Invited Session IV: Extended reality--applications in vision science and beyond: Augmented reality systems for people with low vision.

Low vision is a visual impairment that falls short of blindness but cannot be corrected by eyeglasses or contact lenses. While current low vision aids (e.g., magnifier, CCTV) support basic vision enhancements, such as magnification and contrast enhancement, these enhancements often arbitrarily alter a user's full field of view without considering the user's context, such as their visual abilities, tasks, and environmental factors. As a result, these low vision aids are not sufficient or preferred by low vision users in many important tasks. Augmented reality (AR) technology presents a unique opportunity to enhance low vision people's visual experience by automatically recognizing the surrounding environment and presenting tailored visual augmentations. In this talk, I will talk about how we design and build intelligent AR systems to support low vision people in visual tasks, such as a head-mounted AR system that presents visual cues to orient users' attention in a visual search task, as well as a projection-based AR system that projects visual highlights on the stair edges to support safe stair navigation. I will conclude my talk by discussing our future research direction on AR for low vision accessibility.

Panretinal Optical Coherence Tomography.

We introduce a new concept of panoramic retinal (panretinal) optical coherence tomography (OCT) imaging system with a 140° field of view (FOV). To achieve this unprecedented FOV, a contact imaging approach was used which enabled faster, more efficient, and quantitative retinal imaging with measurement of axial eye length. The utilization of the handheld panretinal OCT imaging system could allow earlier recognition of peripheral retinal disease and prevent permanent vision loss. In addition, adequate visualization of the peripheral retina has a great potential for better understanding disease mechanisms regarding the periphery. To the best of our knowledge, the panretinal OCT imaging system presented in this manuscript has the widest FOV among all the retina OCT imaging systems and offers significant values in both clinical ophthalmology and basic vision science.

How Trustworthy are Performance Evaluations for Basic Vision Tasks?

This article examines performance evaluation criteria for basic vision tasks involving sets of objects namely, object detection, instance-level segmentation and multi-object tracking. The rankings of algorithms by a criterion can fluctuate with different choices of parameters, e.g. Intersection over Union (IoU) threshold, making their evaluations unreliable. More importantly, there is no means to verify whether we can trust the evaluations of a criterion. This work suggests a notion of trustworthiness for performance criteria, which requires (i) robustness to parameters for reliability, (ii) contextual meaningfulness in sanity tests, and (iii) consistency with mathematical requirements such as the metric properties. We observe that these requirements were overlooked by many widely-used criteria, and explore alternative criteria using metrics for sets of shapes. We also assess all these criteria based on the suggested requirements for trustworthiness.

Compact Transformer Tracker with Correlative Masked Modeling

Transformer framework has been showing superior performances in visual object tracking for its great strength in information aggregation across the template and search image with the well-known attention mechanism. Most recent advances focus on exploring attention mechanism variants for better information aggregation. We find these schemes are equivalent to or even just a subset of the basic self-attention mechanism. In this paper, we prove that the vanilla self-attention structure is sufficient for information aggregation, and structural adaption is unnecessary. The key is not the attention structure, but how to extract the discriminative feature for tracking and enhance the communication between the target and search image. Based on this finding, we adopt the basic vision transformer (ViT) architecture as our main tracker and concatenate the template and search image for feature embedding. To guide the encoder to capture the invariant feature for tracking, we attach a lightweight correlative masked decoder which reconstructs the original template and search image from the corresponding masked tokens. The correlative masked decoder serves as a plugin for the compact transformer tracker and is skipped in inference. Our compact tracker uses the most simple structure which only consists of a ViT backbone and a box head, and can run at 40 fps. Extensive experiments show the proposed compact transform tracker outperforms existing approaches, including advanced attention variants, and demonstrates the sufficiency of self-attention in tracking tasks. Our method achieves state-of-the-art performance on five challenging datasets, along with the VOT2020, UAV123, LaSOT, TrackingNet, and GOT-10k benchmarks. Our project is available at https://github.com/HUSTDML/CTTrack.

Legal Pluralism from History to Theory and Back: Otto von Gierke, Santi Romano, and Francesco Calasso on Medieval Institutions

AbstractThis paper considers the historical contexts in which theories of legal pluralism grew and developed between the final third of the nineteenth century and the first half of the twentieth century. Theories of the state as a pluralistic system, as opposed to the absolute supremacy of state-made law, were the focus of German legal historical scholarship in the late nineteenth century, represented by the towering figure of Otto von Gierke. Gierke's image of a pluralist German Middle Ages largely influenced legal scholarship in Europe, even affecting the Italian scholar Santi Romano, whose book on the “legal order” has been considered a milestone in the construction of pluralist legal theories. Once passed from a legal historian like Gierke to a theorist like Romano, the model of a pluralist legal order returned to legal historiography, inspiring the innovative historical interpretation of medieval law proposed by Francesco Calasso. Gierke was a conservative, right-wing socialist, and Romano was a fascist and counselor of the fascist Italian government. Calasso, on the contrary, was a liberal opponent of the fascist regime. The three versions of legal pluralism, then, decline the same basic vision in three different ways, being influenced by the political contexts in which the three authors operated.

OMNI-CONV: Generalization of the Omnidirectional Distortion-Aware Convolutions

Omnidirectional images have drawn great research attention recently thanks to their great potential and performance in various computer vision tasks. However, processing such a type of image requires an adaptation to take into account spherical distortions. Therefore, it is not trivial to directly extend the conventional convolutional neural networks on omnidirectional images because CNNs were initially developed for perspective images. In this paper, we present a general method to adapt perspective convolutional networks to equirectangular images, forming a novel distortion-aware convolution. Our proposed solution can be regarded as a replacement for the existing convolutional network without requiring any additional training cost. To verify the generalization of our method, we conduct an analysis on three basic vision tasks, i.e., semantic segmentation, optical flow, and monocular depth. The experiments on both virtual and real outdoor scenarios show our adapted spherical models consistently outperform their counterparts.

Comparative Analysis of Formal and Informal Dispute Resolution Council in Tehsil Razzar, District Swabi

Jirga is a non-official but restricted institution that exists in Pashtun social structures.. Jirga is defined as the group of members of exact subgroup of Pashtun, considering a matter of universal interests. Particularly in tribal communities adhering to Pashtun traditional standards, it is viewed as a cover of safety and protection for the underprivileged. Jirga is used to settle conflicts over public and private space. Jirga upholds democratic principles and maintains an impartial stance when mediating and arbitrating disputes between plaintiffs. Jirga is a representation of a democratic system where each person has the freedom to voice their opinions in front of other Jirga members. The rule of behaviour that is being upheld at the Jirga aims to foster moral and spiritual ties. Jirga is the primary institution in the tribal region's political system for resolving conflicts and advancing justice. Since the Dispute Resolution Council (DRC)was established, numerous disputes and conflicts have been settled more successfully, and as a result, particularly in the Pashtun Society, it has benefited. The basic vision and goal of the Dispute Resolution Council is conflict resolution and how to foster a beneficial atmosphere between disputing and conflicting parties for societal progress (DRC).

The Basic VRS-Effect Study: Clinical Trial Outcomes and Cost-Effectiveness of Low Vision Rehabilitation in Portugal.

The aim of this study was twofold: (1) to investigate the clinical impact of vision rehabilitation in patients with vision impairment and (2) to investigate the cost-effectiveness of a basic vision rehabilitation service in Portugal. The trial recruited patients diagnosed with age-related macular degeneration or diabetic retinopathy (DR) and visual acuity in the range 0.4-1.0logMAR in the better-seeing eye. Participants were randomised to one of the study arms consisting of immediate intervention and delayed intervention. The intervention included: new refractive correction, optical reading aids, in-office training and advice about modifications at home. Visual ability, health-related quality of life and costs were measured. Economic analysis was performed to evaluate whether the intervention was cost-effective. The trial compared the outcomes 12 weeks after the start in both arms. Of the 46 participants, 34 (74%) were diagnosed with DR, 25 (54%) were female, and mean age was 70.08 years (SD = 8.74). In the immediate intervention arm visual ability increased a mean of 0.523 logits (SE = 0.11) (p < 0.001). Changes in the delayed intervention arm were not statistically significant (p = 0.95). Acuity in the better-seeing eye, near acuity and critical print size also improved during the study. The mean cost of the intervention was €118.79 (SD = 24.37). The incremental cost-effectiveness ratio using the EQ-5D-5L was 30,421€/QALY and 1186€/QALY when using near acuity. The current study gives evidence of positive clinical impact of a basic vision rehabilitation intervention and shows that a basic vision rehabilitation service is cost-effective. These findings are important to clinical and rehabilitation practices and for planning vision rehabilitation services. Retrospectively registered, 21/01/2019. ISRCTN10894889, https://www.isrctn.com/ISRCTN10894889.

Participation in community-based healthcare interventions and non-communicable diseases early detection of general population in Indonesia

BackgroundCommunity-based Healthcare Interventions (CBHIs) are regarded as a critical component of healthcare task-sharing in LMICs and have the potential to address LMICs’ health system weaknesses to improve NCDs prevention care. This study aims to investigate the relationship between participation in CBHIs and NCDs early detection at medical facilities among Indonesians. MethodsData come from the fifth Indonesian Family Life Survey (2014–2015), a total of 27,692 individuals (14,820 female and 12,872 male individuals age 15 and older). Multiple ordered logistics and logistics regression was used to assess the association between individual participation in CBHI and early detection of NCDs at medical facilities. FindingsParticipation in CBHIs are associated with higher odds of having regular blood pressure test (adjusted odds ratio [OR], 3.09; 95% confidence interval [CI], 2.67–3.58), cholesterol test (adjusted OR, 1.88; 95% CI, 1.60–2.22), blood glucose test (adjusted OR, 1.88; 95% CI, 1.58–2.23), electrocardiogram (adjusted OR, 1.37; 95% CI, 1.06–1.76) and basic dental examination (adjusted OR, 1.32; 95% CI, 1.09–1.60) at medical facilities. The odds of having pap smears (adjusted OR, 2.20; 95% CI, 1.62–2.98) and breast self-examination (adjusted OR, 1.73; 95% CI, 1.37–2.19) among females who participated in CBHIs are substantially larger than those who did not participate in CBHIs. No significant association is shown for the basic vision examination (adjusted OR, 1.14; 95% CI, 0.95–1.37), while the association of participation in CBHIs on prostate cancer checkup (adjusted OR, 0.18; 95% CI, 0.04–0.76) was negative and significant. The results were controlled with a wide range of predisposing, enabling and need factors for NCDs early detection. Conclusionand recommendation: CBHIs may benefit NCDs early detection for the general population in Indonesia. Policymakers and health practitioners need to design CBHIs programs that are attractive to the population, especially men and younger people.

The Development of Color Perception and Cognition.

Color is a pervasive feature of our psychological experience, having a role in many aspects of human mind and behavior such as basic vision, scene perception, object recognition, aesthetics, and communication. Understanding how humans encode, perceive, talk about, and use color has been a major interdisciplinary effort. Here, we present the current state of knowledge on how color perception and cognition develop. We cover the development of various aspects of the psychological experience of color, ranging from low-level color vision to perceptual mechanisms such as color constancy to phenomena such as color naming and color preference. We also identify neurodiversity in the development of color perception and cognition and implications for clinical and educational contexts. We discuss the theoretical implications of the research for understanding mature color perception and cognition, for identifying the principles of perceptual and cognitive development, and for fostering a broader debate in the psychological sciences.

Industrial vision and automation

Abstract This volume of Measurement Science and Technology contains a Special Feature on Industrial Vision and Automation. The special feature puts together research articles within the common denominator of Industrial Vision &amp; Automation, especially for evaluation of various materials. This tried to demonstrate the breadth of applications for which one can use various vision systems, together with very recent research developments, some clear demonstrations of the method at work in applications and some of the necessary background theory that underpins the basic vision modalities. This special feature based on the adopted imaging methodology and the principles involved. Further articles in this Special Feature are sub-classified in to optical, thermal, X-ray and acoustical vision modalities as presented below with a brief description of the accepted manuscripts in each sub-section. Optical Vision Systems: An alternative technique is proposed to improve the visual detection rate of longitudinal conveyor belt tears by Gongxian Wang et al [1]; Automatic defect detection in multi-crystalline solar wafers using deep learning is presented by Du-Ming Tsai et al [2] Thermo-Vision Systems: An efficient denoising CAE with U-net architecture is proposed for thermal data to solve the problem of an insufficient dataset has been demonstrated in the work of Xiaoyuan Li et al [3]; Exploratory factor analysis for defect identification with active thermography is presented by Kai-Lun Huang et al [4]; X-ray Vision Systems: Coded aperture x-ray computed tomography `by sparsity-driven deterministic sampling strategy is demonstrated by Munnu Sonkar et al [5]; Acoustical Vision Systems: Phase velocity measurement of dispersive wave modes by Gaussian peak-tracing using f-k transform is presented by Bikash Ghose et al [6]; Coplanar electrical/ultrasonic dual-modality tomography for water continuous gas/oil/water three-phase distribution imaging is demonstrated by Guanghui Liang et al [7]; Defect visualization of cylindrical and conical CFRP lattice structures using rotational ultrasonic propagation imager is highlighted by J H An et al [8]; We are sure that readers will find this as a valuable special feature and a useful reference resource. Finally, we would like to thank all the authors for their contributions, the referees for their effort to thoroughly review the manuscripts by providing their valuable feedback to enhance the quality and the entire Editorial Board of Measurement Science and Technology for their constant support.

Vision Impairment among Children in South India: Results from a Large-Scale School Eye Screening

ABSTRACT Purpose To provide the prevalence of vision impairment and blindness among 250,000 school children aged 6 to 17 years, screened in Tamil Nadu, India. Methods The study was conducted between 2016 and 2019 as a part of the school eye screening program in Kanchipuram district, Tamil Nadu. The clinical examination included basic vision testing, objective refraction, subjective acceptance, spectacle dispensing, and a posterior segment evaluation. The prevalence of vision impairment, blindness, low vision, and the association with other demographic variables using logistic regression were calculated. Results A total of 250,052 children were screened in 1047 schools and the prevalence of vision impairment, blindness, and low vision in Kanchipuram district was 3.83%, 0.01%, 0.19%, respectively. The major causes for vision impairment, blindness, and low vision were refractive errors (3.05%), high myopia (0.002%), and refractive amblyopia (0.04%), respectively. Vision impairment was significantly associated with urban location (OR = 1.42, 95% CI 1.36–1.48, p < .0001), females (OR = 1.11, 95%CI – 1.08–1.15, p < .0001), private schools (OR = 2.43, 95%CI – 2.35–2.42, p < .0001), higher secondary class grade (OR = 1.69, 95%CI – 1.61–1.77, p = .001), high-school class grade (OR = 1.65, 95%CI – 1.58–1.72, p = .001) and middle school class grade (OR = 1.53, 95%CI – 1.47–1.59, p = .001). Conclusion This large-scale school eye screening reports a comparatively lower prevalence of vision impairment, blindness, and low vision when compared to other studies conducted around the world. Although the overall prevalence is relatively low, the causes are mostly refractive. Urban, female, private school-going children aged 11–17 are at higher risk.

Object Detection Algorithm for Wheeled Mobile Robot Based on an Improved YOLOv4

In practical applications, the intelligence of wheeled mobile robots is the trend of future development. Object detection for wheeled mobile robots requires not only the recognition of complex surroundings, but also the deployment of algorithms on resource-limited devices. However, the current state of basic vision technology is insufficient to meet demand. Based on this practical problem, in order to balance detection accuracy and detection efficiency, we propose an object detection algorithm based on a combination of improved YOLOv4 and improved GhostNet in this paper. Firstly, the backbone feature extraction network of original YOLOv4 is replaced with the trimmed GhostNet network. Secondly, enhanced feature extraction network in the YOLOv4, ordinary convolution is supplanted with a combination of depth-separable and ordinary convolution. Finally, the hyperparameter optimization was carried out. The experimental results show that the improved YOLOv4 network proposed in this paper has better object detection performance. Specifically, the precision, recall, F1, mAP (0.5) values, and mAP (0.75) values are 88.89%, 87.12%, 88.00%, 86.84%, and 50.91%, respectively. Although the mAP (0.5) value is only 2.23% less than the original YOLOv4, it is higher than YOLOv4_tiny, Eifficientdet-d0, YOLOv5n, and YOLOv5 compared to 29.34%, 28.99%, 20.36%, and 18.64%, respectively. In addition, it outperformed YOLOv4 in terms of mAP (0.75) value and precision, and its model size is only 42.5 MB, a reduction of 82.58% when compared to YOLOv4’s model size.

Finding Internet of Things resources: A state-of-the-art study

Since its emergence, the Internet of Things (IoT) has aimed to join the physical world to the virtual world with a basic vision, which is to create intelligent spaces in which users interact seamlessly with IoT objects. Therefore, the user will be surrounded by a large number of services offered by these connected objects which he/she will inevitably interact with them. However, the IoT environments are characterized by a large number of heterogeneous connected objects. These characteristics make it difficult to find their adjacent resources. Importantly, because the traditional discovery solutions are inefficient, therefore, a mechanism that makes it possible to dynamically inventory and control the resources present in an IoT environment is crucial. In fact, a resource discovery mechanism basically aims to dynamically and regularly update the base of available resources in the IoT environment. To meet these needs, many research works were conducted where many architectures have been proposed to provide solutions for resource discovery in the IoT environment. In this work, we provide a state-of-the-art study of resource discovery techniques in IoT environment. First, the resource discovery techniques are classified according to their search approaches. Then, a review of a selection of recent works that propose solutions for resource discovery in the IoT environment is provided. Finally, the study gives some implications for further study and a number of guidelines that helps to meet a large part of the requirements of a resource discovery solution in the IoT environment.

MYTHOPOETICS OF THE PLANT CODE IN THE TRADITIONAL CULTURE OF THE MORDOVIAN PEOPLE

This issue on the image of plant in the traditional Mordovian culture illustrates its verbal representation in the Moksha and Erzya folklore of different genres, gives information about the peculiarities of its explication in Mordovian literature and applied and decorative arts, shows the place of the plant images in the Mordovian worldview. The image of plant in the folk arts influences the artistic principals of Mordvins, passed down from generation to generation. The image of a tree is one of the traditional symbols in Mordovian folk culture. This symbol is polysemantic. It is common for Mordovian songs about maidenhood, beauty and youth to use the images of plants and trees. Also, the images of fructiferous trees and their fruits are used to describe the people’s appearance in oral tradition. Basically the cultivated trees, such as apple tree and bird cherry, are used. Evergreen trees are less popular than leafy ones. The form of a tree, its colour and other peculiarities are used to create a poetic image. The article pays a lot of attention to the sacral meaning of the plant image and the ways of its correlation with a person. Perception of folklore works through the plant images makes it possible to better understand the Mordovian worldview. As well as the semiotic system of other Finno-Ugrians of Russia, Mordovian semiotic system used to evolutionize without significant changes in the basic vision of the world. Mythological thinking, based on the pagan worldviews, facilitated developing of archetypes.