Barred Spiral Research Articles

Identify the differences between ordinary and barred spiral galaxies, NGC 2649 and NGC 4662 for examples

Since the beginning of mankind, the view of the sky was present through observations with the naked eye, then it developed with time, and the sciences and tools of astronomical observations developed, including photometric measurements, which reached a high degree of accuracy in describing various cosmic phenomena, including the study of galaxies, their composition, and the differences between them, and from here the importance of this study emerged, to determine the differences between two distinct types of classification of galaxies, which are normal and barred spiral galaxies, where two galaxies NGC 4662 and NGC 2649 were chosen that represented certain types of galaxies to study the morphological structure of the two galaxies, as well as the photometric study of the composition of the two galaxies, where a contour map was drawn, as well as finding the values of the photometric variables of the two galaxies, including the position angle, the ellipticity and B4. A fitting was made for the two galaxies to show the fundamental difference in composition, through which the basic differences between two known types of galaxies could be identified.

A New Statistical Analysis of the Morphology of Spiral Galaxies

Morphology is the starting point for understanding galaxies. Elmegreen et al. classified spiral galaxies into flocculent, multiple-arm, and grand-design galaxies based on the regularity of their spiral arm structure. With the release of a vast number of clear spiral galaxy images from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey, we conducted a morphological classification of 5093 blue spiral galaxies. A statistical analysis of this sample shows that the fractions of flocculent, multiple-arm, and grand-design galaxies are 38% ± 1%, 59% ± 1%, and 3% ± 1%, respectively. Redshift has no obvious influence on this classification. However, as the bulge size becomes larger, the fraction of multiple-arm galaxies increases, while that of flocculent galaxies decreases. In addition, we performed a statistical analysis of 3958 galaxies with a clear spiral arm structure, finding that 82% of these galaxies have two arms in their inner regions. We also found that the majority (74%) of the barred spiral galaxies exhibit the characteristics of two inner spiral arms and multiple outer spiral arms, and there is no barred spiral galaxy in this work with four continuous spiral arms from the inner to the outer regions. These results highlight that the spiral arm structure of the Milky Way, according to the current mainstream view of a four-arm galaxy with continuous arms extending from the inner to outer regions, is quite unique. However, our findings align with the spiral morphology of the Milky Way proposed by Xu et al., in which case our Galaxy can be considered typical.

How do the successive buckling events affect a galaxy bar and stellar disc? Potential observable signatures for spotting the buckling action – I

ABSTRACT Until now, observations have caught up only a handful of galaxies in ongoing buckling action. Interestingly, N-body simulations over the past several decades show that almost every bar buckles or vertically thickens as soon as it reaches its peak strength during its evolution and leads to box/peanut/x (BPX) shapes. In order to understand the effect of multiple buckling events on the observable properties of galactic bar and disc, we perform an N-body simulation of a Milky Way-type disc. The axisymmetric galaxy disc forms a bar within a Gyr of its evolution and the bar undergoes two successive buckling events. We report that the time-spans of these two buckling events are 220 Myr and 1 Gyr, which have almost similar strengths of the bending modes. As a result of these two buckling events, the full lengths of BPX shapes are around 5.8 and 8.6 kpc, which are around two-thirds of the full bar length at the end of each buckling event. We find that the first buckling occurs at a smaller scale (radius $\lt $3 kpc) with a shorter time-span affecting the larger length-scales of the disc, which is quantified in terms of changes in $m=$2 and $m=$ 4 Fourier modes. While the second buckling occurs at larger scales (radius $\approx$6 kpc) affecting the inner disc the most. Finally, we provide observable kinematic signatures (i.e. quadrupolar patterns of the line-of-sight velocities), which can potentially differentiate the successive buckling events.

The host of GRB 171205A in 3D

Long GRB hosts at z < 1 are usually low-mass, low-metallicity star-forming galaxies. Here we present the most detailed, spatially resolved study of the host of GRB 171205A so far, a grand-design barred spiral galaxy at z = 0.036. Our analysis includes MUSE integral field spectroscopy complemented with high-spatial-resolution UV/VIS HST imaging and CO(1−0) and H I 21 cm data. The GRB is located in a small star-forming region in a spiral arm of the galaxy at a deprojected distance of ∼8 kpc from the center. The galaxy shows a smooth negative metallicity gradient and the metallicity at the GRB site is half solar, slightly below the mean metallicity at the corresponding distance from the center. Star formation in this galaxy is concentrated in a few H II regions between 5 and 7 kpc from the center and at the end of the bar, inwards from the GRB region; however the H II region hosting the GRB is in the top 10% of the regions with the highest specific star-formation rate. The stellar population at the GRB site has a very young component (< 5 Myr) that contributes a significant part of the light. Ionized and molecular gas show only minor deviations at the end of the bar. A parallel study found an asymmetric H I distribution and some additional gas near the position of the GRB, which might explain the star-forming region of the GRB site. Our study shows that long GRBs can occur in many types of star-forming galaxies; however the actual GRB sites have consistently low metallicity, high star formation rates, and a young population. Furthermore, gas inflow or interactions triggering the star formation producing the GRB progenitor might not be evident in ionized or even molecular gas but only in H I.

The Effects of Bar Strength and Kinematics on Galaxy Evolution: Slow Strong Bars Affect Their Hosts the Most

We study how bar strength and bar kinematics affect star formation in different regions of the bar by creating radial profiles of EW[Hα] and Dn4000 using data from Sloan Digital Sky Survey-IV Mapping Nearby Galaxies at Apache Point Observatory (MaNGA). Bars in galaxies are classified as strong or weak using Galaxy Zoo DESI, and they are classified as fast and slow bars using the Tremaine–Weinberg method on stellar kinematic data from the MaNGA survey. In agreement with previous studies, we find that strong bars in star-forming (SF) galaxies have enhanced star formation in their center and beyond the bar-end region, while star formation is suppressed in the arms of the bar. This is not found for weakly barred galaxies, which have very similar radial profiles to unbarred galaxies. In addition, we find that slow bars in SF galaxies have significantly higher star formation along the bar than fast bars. However, the global star formation rate is not significantly different between galaxies with fast and slow bars. This suggests that the kinematics of the bar do not affect star formation globally, but changes where star formation occurs in the galaxy. Thus, we find that a bar will influence its host the most if it is both strong and slow.

The Strength of Bisymmetric Modes in SDSS-IV/MaNGA Barred Galaxy Kinematics

The Sloan Digital Sky Survey-IV/Mapping Nearby Galaxies at Apache Point Observatory (MaNGA) Survey data provide an unprecedented opportunity to study the internal motions of galaxies and, in particular, represent the largest sample of barred galaxy kinematic maps obtained to date. We present results from Nirvana, our nonaxisymmetric kinematic modeling code built with a physically motivated Bayesian forward modeling approach, which decomposes MaNGA velocity fields into first- and second-order radial and tangential rotational modes in a generalized and minimally supervised fashion. We use Nirvana to produce models and rotation curves for 1263 unique barred MaNGA galaxies and a matched unbarred control sample. We present our modeling approach, tests of its efficacy, and validation against existing visual bar classifications. Nirvana finds elevated noncircular motions in galaxies identified as bars in imaging, and bar position angles that agree well with visual measurements. The Nirvana-MaNGA barred and control samples provide a new opportunity for studying the influence of nonaxisymmetric internal disk kinematics in a large statistical sample.

Ellipse-fitting in Mock Images of TNG50 Barred Galaxies

Recent studies have utilized the TNG50 simulation to explore barred galaxy morphology. The ellipse-fitting method is commonly used to assess properties of the isophotes in the central region of the disk. This work adapts the ellipse-fitting method to simulated images from TNG50, dealing with the issue of excessively pronounced ellipticities in central regions, whether in mass distribution maps or simulated radiative transfer images. To solve this problem, we introduce synthetic realism in the form of convolution with point spread functions, correcting the misbehavior in central ellipticities. These improvements simplify the application of ellipse-fitting to barred galaxies in the TNG50 simulation, enabling more accurate analysis of properties such as bar length and ellipticity, which would otherwise be more difficult to measure accurately. Thus, we conclude that when measuring shapes of simulated barred galaxies, one should apply realistic smoothing, otherwise the inner ellipticities will not be comparable to observations.

Examination of the stress-strain model for confined concrete considering the impact of corroded spiral bars

To examine the impact of corroded spiral bars on the confinement effect of concrete, a series of dry-wet cyclic accelerated corrosion tests and axial compression tests were performed on 36 RC (Reinforced Concrete) specimens. This study investigated the effects of various factors, including the degree of corrosion in spiral bars, the reinforcement configuration, and the concrete strength grade, on the axial compressive performance of confined concrete. The mechanical behavior of concrete, which was confined by corroded spiral bars, was analyzed by considering the corrosion characteristics, failure patterns, and load-carrying capacity of the specimens. A modified Mander model, which incorporates the influence of corroded spiral bars, was developed. The results indicate that increased corrosion accelerates specimen damage and reduces ductility. Stirrups show pull-off phenomena. A higher stirrup ratio enhances the bearing capacity and deformation capacity of specimen during destruction, while reducing longitudinal reinforcement buckling. Stronger concrete delays vertical cracking, increases bearing capacity, but reduces deformation capacity during destruction. The modified Mander model demonstrates high computational accuracy.

WISDOM Project – XXI. Giant molecular clouds in the central region of the barred spiral galaxy NGC 613: a steep size–linewidth relation

ABSTRACT NGC 613 is a nearby barred spiral galaxy with a nuclear ring. Exploiting high spatial resolution (≈20 pc) Atacama Large Millimetre/submillimetre Array 12CO(1–0) observations, we study the giant molecular clouds (GMCs) in the nuclear ring and its vicinity, identifying 158 spatially and spectrally resolved GMCs. The GMC sizes (Rc) are comparable to those of the clouds in the Milky Way (MW) disc, but their gas masses, observed linewidths (σobs,los), and gas mass surface densities are larger. The GMC size–linewidth relation ($\sigma _{\mathrm{obs,los}}\propto R_{\mathrm{c}}^{0.77}$) is steeper than that of the clouds of the MW disc and centre, and the GMCs are on average only marginally gravitationally bound (with a mean virial parameter 〈αobs,vir〉 ≈ 1.7). We discuss the possible origins of the steep size–linewidth relation and enhanced observed linewidths of the clouds and suggest that a combination of mechanisms such as stellar feedback, gas accretion, and cloud–cloud collisions, as well as the gas inflows driven by the large-scale bar, may play a role.

The CO-to-H2 Conversion Factor in the Barred Spiral Galaxy M83

We analyze the CO-to-H2 conversion factor (α CO) in the nearby barred spiral galaxy M83. We present new H i observations from the VLA and single-dish GBT in the disk of the galaxy, and combine them with maps of CO(1-0) integrated intensity and dust surface density from the literature. α CO and the gas-to-dust ratio (δ GDR) are simultaneously derived in annuli of 2 kpc width from R = 1–7 kpc. We find that α CO and δ GDR both increase radially, by a factor of ∼2–3 from the center to the outskirts of the disk. The luminosity-weighted averages over the disk are α CO = 3.14 (2.06, 4.96) M⊙pc−2[Kkms−1]−1 and δ GDR = 137 (111, 182) at the 68% (1σ) confidence level. These are consistent with the α CO and δ GDR values measured in the Milky Way. In addition to possible variations of α CO due to the radial metallicity gradient, we test the possibility of variations in α CO due to changes in the underlying cloud populations, as a function of galactic radius. Using a truncated power-law molecular cloud CO luminosity function and an empirical power-law relation for cloud mass and luminosity, we show that the changes in the underlying cloud population may account for a factor of ∼1.5–2.0 radial change in α CO.

The impact of stellar bars on star-formation quenching: Insights from a spatially resolved analysis in the local Universe

Stellar bars are common morphological structures in the local Universe; according to optical and NIR surveys, they are present in about two-thirds of disc galaxies. These elongated structures are also believed to play a crucial role in secular evolutionary processes, because they are able to efficiently redistribute gas, stars, and angular momentum within their hosts, although it remains unclear as to whether they enhance or suppress star formation. A useful tool to investigate this ambiguity is the main sequence (MS) relation, which tightly links stellar mass ($M_ star $) and star formation rate (SFR). The main goal of this work is to explore star-formation processes in barred galaxies in order to assess the relevance of bars in star-formation quenching and whether or not they affect the typical log-linear trend of the resolved MS. To this purpose, we carried out a spatially resolved analysis on subkiloparsec (subkpc) scales for a sample of six nearby barred galaxies. We collected multi-wavelength photometric data from far-ultraviolet (FUV) to far-infrared (FIR) from the DustPedia database and applied a panchromatic spectral energy distribution (SED) fitting procedure on square apertures of fixed angular size ( arcsec times arcsec ) using the magphys code. For each galaxy, we obtain the distributions of stellar mass and SFR surface density and relate them in the $ star SFR $ plane, deriving the spatially resolved MS relation. Although significant galaxy-to-galaxy variations are in place, we infer the presence of a common anti-correlation track in correspondence with the bar-hosting region, which shows systematically lower SFRs. This central quiescent signature can be interpreted as the result of a bar-driven depletion of gas reservoirs and a consequent halting of star formation. Our findings appear to support an inside-out quenching scenario.

Deprojection and stellar dynamical modelling of boxy/peanut bars in edge-on discs

ABSTRACT We present a new method to infer the 3D luminosity distributions of edge-on barred galaxies with boxy-peanut/X (BP/X) shaped structures from their 2D surface brightness distributions. Our method relies on forward modelling of newly introduced parametric 3D density distributions for the BP/X bar, disc and other components using an existing image fitting software package (imfit). We validate our method using an N-body simulation of a barred disc galaxy with a moderately strong BP/X shape. For fixed orientation angles, the derived 3D BP/X-shaped density distribution is shown to yield a gravitational potential that is accurate to at least 5 per cent and forces that are accurate to at least 15 per cent, with average errors being $\sim 1.5~{{\ \rm per\ cent}}$ for both. When additional quantities of interest, such as the orientation of the bar to the line of sight, its pattern speed, and the stellar mass-to-light ratio are unknown they can be recovered to high accuracy by providing the parametric density distribution to the Schwarzschild modelling code FORSTAND. We also explore the ability of our models to recover the mass of the central supermassive black hole. This method is the first to be able to accurately recover both the orientation of the bar to the line of sight and its pattern speed when the disc is perfectly edge-on.

Evidence for enhanced star formation rates in z ∼ 0.35 cluster galaxies undergoing ram pressure stripping

Ram-pressure stripping (RPS) is the mechanism most often invoked to explain the observed differences between cluster and field galaxies. In the local Universe, its effect on the star-forming properties of the galaxies has been largely elucidated and the general consensus is that this process first compresses the gas available in galaxy disks, boosting the star formation for a limited amount of time, and then removes the remaining gas, leading to quenching. Much less is known about the effect and preponderance of RPS at higher redshifts, due to the lack of statistical samples. Exploiting VLT/MUSE observations of galaxies at 0.2 < z < 0.55 and a published catalog of ram-pressure-stripped galaxies, we compare the global star formation rate–mass (SFR–M*) relation of 29 cluster galaxies undergoing RPS to that of 26 undisturbed field and cluster galaxies that constitute our control sample. Stripping galaxies occupy the upper envelope of the SFR–M* relation of the control sample, showing a systematic enhancement of SFR at any given mass. The boost is > 3σ when considering the SFR occurring in both the tail and the disk of the galaxies. The enhancement is also seen on local scales: Considering spatially resolved data, ram-pressure stripped galaxies have large ΣSFR values overall, especially for Σ* > 107.5 M⊙ kpc−2. RPS seems to leave the same imprint on the SFR–M* and ΣSFR–Σ* relations both in the local Universe and at z ∼ 0.35.

Improving Bond Performance of Near-Surface Mounted Steel Ribbed and Threated Rods in the Concrete

In this study, the experimental findings of twenty pull-out tests on the bond efficiency of threaded/ribbed steel rods used in near-surface mounting (NSM) are presented. On a groove (20 × 20 mm) that was slotted in one of the sides of a concrete block measuring 250 × 250 × 200 mm, a pull-out experiment was performed. The primary factors are the slot-filling materials (substrate concrete and epoxy paste), bonded length (equal to 5, 7, 10, and 15 times the rod diameter), surface pattern conditions (conventional ribbed reinforcing rebar and threaded bolt), use of nuts or rings welded at the free end of the bonded length, and use of straight or spiral wire welded along the length of the bonded length. The tested specimens' ultimate bond strength, slip, bond stress–slip response, failure patterns, stiffness, and ductility are recorded and assessed. The results showed that the ultimate bond strength and corresponding slip of ribbed rods cemented with epoxy were higher by 11.11% and 199%, respectively, than those of ribbed rods submerged in the substrate. Over the controls, all NSM epoxy-rods exhibited a greater ductility. As the bonded length increased, the ultimate bond strength of NSM rods fell by 12–32%. As the bonded length increased, the stiffness decreased. On the other hand, the ductility of NSM epoxy-rods increased as the bonded length increased. All applied schemes such as nuts, rings, longitudinal bars, and spiral bars significantly improved the ultimate bond strength (maximum = 25.93%) and corresponding slip (maximum = 166.67%) of NSM threaded rods as compared to the control ones.

What drives the wheels of evolution in NGC 1512?

Context. Environmental and secular processes play a pivotal role in the evolution of galaxies. These can be external processes such as interactions or internal processes linked to the action of bar, bulge, and spiral structures. Ongoing star formation in spiral galaxies can be affected by these processes. By studying the star formation progression in the galaxy, we can gain insights into the role of different processes that regulate the overall evolution of a galaxy. Aims. The ongoing interaction between the barred-spiral galaxy NGC 1512 and its satellite NGC 1510 offers an opportunity to investigate how galactic interactions and the presence of a galactic bar influence the evolution of NGC 1512. We aim to understand the recent star formation activity in the galaxy pair and thus gain insight into the evolution of NGC 1512. Methods. The UltraViolet Imaging Telescope (UVIT) on board AstroSat enables us to characterise the star-forming regions in the galaxy with a superior spatial resolution of ∼85 pc in the galaxy rest frame. We identified and characterised 175 star-forming regions in the UVIT far-ultraviolet (FUV) image of NGC 1512 and correlated with the neutral hydrogen (H I) distribution. Extinction correction was applied to the estimated photometric magnitude. We traced the star-forming spiral arms of the galaxy and studied the star formation properties across the galaxy in detail. Results. We detect localised regions of star-formation enhancement and distortions in the galactic disc. We find this to be consistent with the distribution of H I in the galaxy. This is evidence of past and ongoing interactions affecting the star formation properties of the galaxy. We studied the properties of the inner ring. We find that the regions of the inner ring show maximum star-formation-rate density (log(SFRDmean[M⊙ yr−1 kpc−2]) ∼ −1.7) near the major axis of the bar, hinting at a possible crowding effect in these regions. The region of the bar in the galaxy is also depleted of UV emission. This absence suggests that the galactic bar may have played an active role in the redistribution of gas and quenching of star formation inside the identified bar region. We therefore suggest that both secular and environmental factors might be influencing the evolution of NGC 1512.

Detecting a disc bending wave in a barred-spiral galaxy at redshift 4.4

ABSTRACT The recent discovery of barred spiral galaxies in the early Universe (z > 2) poses questions of how these structures form and how they influence galaxy evolution in the early Universe. In this study, we investigate the morphology and kinematics of the far-infrared (FIR) continuum and [C ii] emission in BRI1335-0417 at z ≈ 4.4 from ALMA observations. The variations in position angle and ellipticity of the isophotes show the characteristic signature of a barred galaxy. The bar, $3.3^{+0.2}_{-0.2}$ kpc long in radius and bridging the previously identified two-armed spiral, is evident in both [C ii] and FIR images, driving the galaxy’s rapid evolution by channelling gas towards the nucleus. Fourier analysis of the [C ii] velocity field reveals an unambiguous kinematic m = 2 mode with a line-of-sight velocity amplitude of up to ∼30–40 km s−1; a plausible explanation is the disc’s vertical bending mode triggered by external perturbation, which presumably induced the high star formation rate and the bar/spiral structure. The bar identified in [C ii] and FIR images of the gas-rich disc galaxy (≳ 70 per cent of the total mass within radius R ≈ 2.2 disc scale lengths) suggests a new perspective of early bar formation in high redshift gas-rich galaxies – a gravitationally unstable gas-rich disc creating a star-forming gaseous bar, rather than a stellar bar emerging from a pre-existing stellar disc. This may explain the prevalent bar-like structures seen in FIR images of high-redshift submillimeter galaxies.

Morphology of Star-forming Clumps in Ram-pressure Stripped Galaxies as Seen by HST

We characterize the morphological properties of a statistically relevant sample of Hα and UV young star-forming clumps and optical complexes, observed with the Hubble Space Telescope in six galaxies of the GASP sample undergoing ram pressure stripping. The catalogs comprise 2406 (323 in the tails) Hα clumps, 3750 (899) UV clumps, and 424 tail optical complexes. About 15%–20% of the clumps and 50% of the complexes are resolved in size. We find that more than half of the complexes contain no Hα clumps, while most of them contain at least one UV clump. The clump number and size increase with the complex size, while the median complex filling factor is larger for UV clumps (0.27) than that for Hα clumps (0.10) and does not correlate with almost any morphological property. This suggests that the clumps' number and size grow with the complex keeping the filling factor constant. When studying the position of the clumps inside their complexes, Hα clumps, and UV clumps to a lesser extent, show a displacement from the complex center of 0.1–1 kpc, and in ∼60% of the cases, they are displaced away from the galactic disk. This is in accordance with the fireball configuration, already observed in the tails of stripped galaxies. Finally, the filling factor and the clump radius increase with the distance from the galactic disk, suggesting that the reciprocal displacement of the different stellar generations increases as a consequence of the velocity gradient caused by ram pressure.

Properties of barred galaxies with the environment

Context. Barred structures are widespread in a considerable fraction of galactic disks, spanning diverse environments and galaxy luminosities. The environment likely exerts a significant influence on bar formation, with tidal interactions leading to the emergence of elongated features resembling bars within galaxy disks. It is plausible that the structural parameters of bars resulting from tidal interactions in high-density galactic environments differ from those that formed through internal disk instabilities in isolated galaxies. To empirically test this scenario, a viable approach is to compare the structural parameters of bars in galaxies situated within distinct environments. Aims. The objective of this study is to study environmental effects on the properties of bars by conducting a comparison between the two key structural parameters of bars, namely strength and radius, in galaxies situated within the Virgo cluster and galaxies of comparable luminosities found in environments characterized by lower galaxy densities. Methods. We have collected data on the bar radius and bar strength for a sample of 36 SB0 and SBa galaxies located within the Virgo cluster. These galaxies exhibit a large range of magnitudes, with values ranging from Mr = −22 to Mr = −17. Additionally, we analyzed a sample of 46 field galaxies with similar morphologies and luminosity ranges. The measurements of bar parameters were conducted by employing Fourier decomposition on the r-band photometric images of the galaxies. Results. The analysis reveals that the bar radius exhibits a correlation with the galaxy luminosity, indicating that larger bars are typically found in more luminous galaxies. When comparing galaxies with fixed luminosities, the field galaxies display larger bar radii compared to those in the Virgo cluster. However, when the bar radius is scaled by the size of the galaxy, the disparity diminishes and the scaled bars in the Virgo cluster and the field exhibit similar sizes. This is because galaxies of similar luminosities tend to be larger in the field environment compared to the cluster and because the bars adapt to the disks in which they live. Regarding the bar strength, no significant differences were observed for bright galaxies (Mr < −19.5) between those located in the Virgo cluster and those in the field. In contrast, faint galaxies (Mr > −19.5) show stronger bars in the field than in the cluster. Conclusions. The findings of this study indicate that the size of galaxies is the parameter that is influenced by the environment, while the bar radius remains independent of the environment when scaled by the galaxy size. The findings of this study indicate that the environment influences the size of galaxies rather than the bar radius, which remains independent of the environment when scaled by the galaxy size. Regarding the bar strength, there is no influence of the environment for bright galaxies. However, bars in faint galaxies are weaker in the cluster environment. This could be explained by an enhancement of disk thickness in dense environments which is more efficient in faint galaxies. These results support the notion that the internal dynamics and intrinsic characteristics of galaxies play a dominant role in the formation and evolution of bars, regardless of the surrounding environment.

The interplay between accretion, downsizing, and the formation of box/peanut bulges in TNG50

ABSTRACT From the TNG50 cosmological simulation we build a sample of 191 well-resolved barred galaxies with stellar mass $\mbox{$\log (M_{\star }/\mathrm{M}_{\odot })$}\gt 10$ at z = 0. We search for box/peanut bulges (BPs) in this sample, finding them in 55 per cent of cases. We compute $\mbox{$f_{\rm BP}$}$, the BP probability for barred galaxies as a function of M⋆, and find that this rises to a plateau, as found in observations of nearby galaxies. The transition mass where $\mbox{$f_{\rm BP}$}$ reaches half the plateau value is $\mbox{$\log (M_{\star }/\mathrm{M}_{\odot })$}= 10.13\pm 0.07$, consistent with the observational value within measurement errors. We show that this transition in $\mbox{$f_{\rm BP}$}$ can be attributed to the youth of the bars at low M⋆, which is a consequence of downsizing. Young bars, being generally shorter and weaker, have not yet had time to form BPs. At high mass, while we find a plateau, the value is at $\sim 60~{{\ \rm per\ cent}}$ whereas observations saturate at 100 per cent. We attribute this difference to excessive heating in TNG50 due to merger activity and numerical resolution effects. BPs in TNG50 tend to occur in galaxies with more quiescent merger histories. As a result, the main driver of whether a bar hosts a BP in TNG50 is not the galaxy mass, but how long and strong the bar is. Separating the BP sample into those that have visibly buckled and those that have not, we find that fully half of BP galaxies show clear signs of buckling, despite the excessive heating and limited vertical resolution of TNG50.

Development of a novel connection method using expanded rib and spiral bars for reinforced concrete beams with cold joints

A contactless coupler system was developed for the analysis of reinforced concrete beams, specifically for beams with non-contact joints. Beam tests were conducted on specimens with three types of reinforcing bars: continuous (CR), non-continuous expanded (NE), and simply non-continuous (NR). The test results indicated that both the CR and NE specimens demonstrated comparable levels of strength and flexibility. However, the NR specimens fractured in a brittle manner. The strain measurements revealed that the decline in the strength and stiffness of the contactless coupler influenced the beam's structural behavior. When this decline surpassed a certain point, the weakest part of the beam shifted from the cold joint to the connecting segment. This shift led to a modification in the manner in which the beam failed. The distinction between NE and NR becomes apparent through the enhancement in the bonding strength of the rebars, facilitated by the use of expanded ribs. These ribs contribute significantly to decreasing the development length needed for the rebars. Furthermore, a meticulous analysis of the failure modes and the transition zone of weakness has been conducted by leveraging numerical simulations. These simulations take into account the mechanical conditions intrinsic to the contactless coupler.