Barking Deer Muntiacus Muntjak Research Articles

Occupancy patterns of prey species in a biological corridor and inferences for tiger population connectivity between national parks in Bhutan

AbstractSite occupancy models, accounting for imperfect detection and the influence of anthropogenic and ecological covariates, can indicate the status of species populations. They may thus be useful for exploring the suitability of landscapes such as biological corridors, to ensure population dispersal and connectivity. Using occupancy probability models of its principal prey species, we make inferences on landscape connectivity for the movement of the tiger Panthera tigris between protected areas in Bhutan. We used camera-trap data to assess the probability of site occupancy (Ψ) of the sambar Rusa unicolor, wild boar Sus scrofa and barking deer Muntiacus muntjak in biological corridor no. 8, which connects two national parks in central Bhutan. At least one prey species was recorded at 17 out of 26 trapping locations. The probability of site occupancy was highest for the barking deer (Ψ = 0.52 ± SE 0.09) followed by sambar (Ψ = 0.49 ± SE 0.03) and wild boar (Ψ = 0.45 ± SE 0.07). All three species had higher occupancy probability at lower altitudes. Sambar occupancy was greater farther from settlements and on steeper and/or south-facing slopes. Barking deer also had higher occupancy on south-facing slopes, and wild boar occurred mainly close to rivers. Our findings suggest that this biological corridor could facilitate dispersal of tigers. Protecting prey species, and minimizing anthropogenic disturbance and habitat fragmentation, are vital for tiger dispersal and thus functional connectivity amongst populations in this area.

<b>Observations of occurrence and daily activity patterns of ungulates in the Endau Rompin Landscape, peninsular Malaysia</b>

Camera trap data was used to study occurrence and daily activity patterns in the Endau Rompin Landscape of peninsular Malaysia during 2011, 2013 and 2015 to estimate Malayan Tiger Panthera tigris jacksoni population densities. By-catch data were also collected for seven ungulate species: Barking Deer Muntiacus muntjak, Bearded Pig Sus barbatus, Wild Boar Sus scrofa, Greater Mousedeer Tragulus napu, Lesser Mousedeer Tragulus kanchil, Malayan Tapir Tapirus indicus and Sambar Deer Rusa unicolor. Of these, Bayesian single-season occupancy analysis suggested that Barking Deer were the most widespread and Mousedeer spp. the least widespread during the study period. Bearded Pig, Malayan Tapir and Wild Boar were recorded in more than half of the camera trap area (Sambar Deer was excluded due to small sample size). Daily activity patterns based on independent captures in 2015 suggest that Barking Deer, Bearded Pig and Wild Boar are mostly diurnal, mousedeer species are crepuscular and Malayan Tapir strongly nocturnal.

Population densities, group size and biomass of ungulates in a lowland tropical rainforest forest of the eastern Himalayas

Large ungulate population monitoring is a crucial wildlife management tool as ungulates help in structuring and maintaining the large carnivore populations. Reliable data on population status of major ungulate prey species are still non-existent for most of the protected areas in the Indian part of the eastern Himalayan biodiversity hotspot. Twenty transects were monitored over a period of three years (2009–2011) totaling 600km with an average length of 2km. The estimated mean density of ungulates was 17.5km−2 with overall density of 48.7km−2. The wild pig Sus scrofa had the highest density (6.7±1.2km−2) among all the prey species followed by barking deer Muntiacus muntjak (3.9±0.6km−2), sambar Rusa unicolor (3.8±0.5) and gaur Bos gaurus (3.5±0.9km−2). The estimated total ungulate biomass density was 2182.56kgkm−2. This prey biomass can support up to 7.2 tigers per 100km−2. However, with two other sympatric carnivores sharing the same resources, the actual tiger numbers that can be supported will be lower. The estimated minor prey species was 31km−2 significantly 30.6% crop damages were reported by wild pig (p=0.01) and 35.4% was elephant (p=0.004). This data on ungulate densities and biomass will be crucial for carnivore conservation in this understudied globally significant biodiversity hotspot.

Sampling tiger ungulate prey by the distance method: lessons learned in Bardia National Park, Nepal

AbstractBecause tigerPanthera tigrisnumbers are regulated by their prey base, prey abundance needs to monitored and estimated reliably. Recently, distance sampling has been adopted as the most appropriate method and is now becoming the standard monitoring protocol in all tiger range countries in south Asia. However, the accuracy of the density estimates generated by this method has not been assessed. From total counts within habitat blocks, we obtained accurate density estimates of ungulates within three main habitats in Bardia National Park, Nepal. We then applied the distance sampling method in the same habitats and compared the results. Distance sampling on foot in dense habitats (riverine forest and tallgrass floodplain) violated method assumptions, and sampling from vehicle along roads gave biased estimates. Sampling from elephant back worked well in all habitat types, but owing to their behaviour, the density of barking deerMuntiacus muntjakwas underestimated. The accuracy of the estimates varied with sampling effort; for the very abundant chital deerAxis axis, estimates varied markedly at <200 animal observations, but converged at larger sample sizes to a similar point estimate as intensive block counts when approaching 300 observations. For the less abundant species, with <20 observations along >100 km of transect lines, the confidence intervals were quite high, and, hence, of limited value for detecting short‐term populations trends. It is therefore difficult to obtain accurate density estimates of rare species by the distance method. In areas consisting of dense habitats, we recommend that the food base of tiger be estimated by distance sampling from elephant back, not on foot, directed at the main and most abundant prey species. For rare species, encounter rates obtained simultaneously may then serve as indices of relative abundances.

Food habits of dholes (Cuon alpinus) in Satpura Tiger Reserve, Madhya Pradesh, India

Food habits of dholes were studied in Satpura Tiger Reserve, Madhya Pradesh, India, from June 2005 to August 2005 by analyzing their scats. In total, 66 scat samples were collected from various locations in the reserve in an area of 336.70 km2 and analyzed to identify the food habits of dholes. Seven prey species were identified from the scat analysis. Sambar Cervus unicolor accounted for the highest percentage (46.97%), while barking deer Muntiacus muntjak and jungle fowl Gallus gallus was the lowest (1.52%). In terms of prey biomass contribution, sambar was highest (68.03%) while jungle fowl was lowest (0.28%). The total prey biomass consumed by the dholes in the study area was 141.26 kg during the study period. Our results may prove helpful in planning better management needs and strategies for the survival and conservation of dholes in different protected areas.

The status, distribution and conservation of the tiger Panthera tigris in Bhutan

The tiger Panthera tigris is the top carnivore in Bhutan, where it occurs from the foothills of the Himalayas at an altitude of 200 m in the south to over 3000 m in the north. It has a wide distribution and its range includes savannah grasslands, sub-tropical and temperate forests. It feeds on a variety of prey species ranging in size from the barking deer Muntiacus muntjak to the gaur Bos gaurus. Attacks on domestic yak are not uncommon and are the cause of conflict with herdsmen, who treat the tiger as vermin and eliminate it using poison. There are estimated to be between 150 and 250 tigers in Bhutan. In prime habitats, as in the Royal Manas National Park, the tiger can exist at a density of 4·5 100 km −2. As with other large predators, the basis for conservation must be a separation of human settlements and wildlife reserves. Given this background, the emphasis must be to maintain forest cover over large areas where remoteness, difficulty of terrain and density of cover provide natural protection. Not all small populations are necessarily doomed. The overall prospects for the tiger appear good in Bhutan provided deforestation is carefully controlled. In order to succeed, protection of conservation areas should be accompanied by measures to improve the living standards of the people.

An ecological survey of the Royal Karnali-Bardia Wildlife Reserve, Nepal: Part III: Ungulate populations

Population density and biomass estimates for wild and domestic ungulates in the Royal Karnali-Bardia Wildlife Reserve, Nepal, are presented and compared with values obtained from other reserves in South Asia. Wild ungulate population densities varied in relation to habitat diversity; large herbivores were most numerous where early and intermediate successional stages intergraded with one another and only sparsely distributed in continuous climax sal Shorea robusta forest. Chital Axis axis was the most abundant wild ruminant in the reserve. It and the nilgai Boselaphus trago-camelus constituted 88% of the total wild herbivore biomass in the southwestern corner of Karnali-Bardia, where an intensive study was carried out. The biomass of domestic stock utilising the same study area in 1975 was computed to be 15–17 times higher than the levels attained by wild ungulates in April of 1977, nearly two years after the reserve borders had been closed to domestic grazing. Observations during the hot-dry season indicated that both wild and domestic ruminants competed for the same forage species. Among the wild ungulates, chital were decidedly the most gregarious, commonly associating in feeding aggregations of over 20 individuals on the open savannahs. Nilgai and wild boar Sus scrofa formed smaller groups while barking deer Muntiacus muntjak and hog deer Axis porcinus were primarily solitary. Chital exhibited a peak in rutting activity during the late hot-dry season and a subsequent birth peak in February. Nilgai exhibited a different pattern, breeding in January and calving during the monsoon, when optimum foraging conditions prevailed.

An ecological survey of the Royal Karnali-Bardia Wildlife Reserve, Nepal. Part II: Habitat/animal interactions

The habitat utilisation by ungulates in a newly created tiger sanctuary of the southwestern Nepalese Terai is analysed. While most of the Royal Karnali-Bardia Wildlife Reserve is covered by a rather homogeneous belt of moist subtropical deciduous forest, one section of the reserve supported a wide variety of habitat types. In this area, flood plain, savannah, and several riverine forest associations intergraded with stands of the dominant Shorea robusta forest. Free-living mammals responded to this ecological heterogeneity, permitting an analysis of habitat preferences by the following species: chital Axis axis, nilgai Boselaphus tragocamelus, hog deer Axis porcinus, barking deer Muntiacus muntjak, swamp deer Cervus duvauceli, sambar Cervus unicolor, and two primate species, common langur Presbytis entellus, and rhesus monkeys Macaca mulatta. Differences in feeding and anti-predator strategies offered a degree of ecological separation between most of the ungulates studied. Changes in plant distribution and phenology affected ungulate food habits, energy budgets, movements, and seasonal distribution. A special feeding relationship between certain ungulates and langur and rhesus monkeys was observed. The sambar, an ungulate capable of exploiting a feeding niche in continuous climax forest, appears to be best adapted to the habitat types which dominate most of Karnali-Bardia, while only 30% of the reserve could be considered prime habitat for the chital, the most abundant grazing ungulate in the reserve. Proposals to improve habitat conditions for grazing ungulates through an experimental programme integrating controlled burns, water hole development, and the creation of openings in continuous climax forest are examined.