Bamenda Highlands Research Articles

A new cloud forest tree Lychnodiscus bali (Sapindaceae), Critically Endangered from the Bali-Ngemba Forest Reserve, NW Region, Cameroon

SummaryWe describe and illustrate Lychnodiscus bali Cheek (Sapindaceae), a new species to science, from the Bali Ngemba Forest Reserve of NW Region Cameroon, the last major remnant of cloud forest in the Bamenda Highlands of Cameroon, recently evidenced as a Tropical Important Plant Area (TIPA or IPA). Confined on current evidence to upper submontane forest, the new species is threatened by expanding habitat clearance for farms and is assessed as Critically Endangered. A small tree, attaining 3 – 4 m height, it is the first new species to be added to this Guineo-Congolian tree genus in 50 years, the third recorded from Cameroon and takes the number of species in the genus to eight. It has the highest known altitudinal range (1700 – 1950 m alt.) of any species of the genus. We discuss its discovery in the context of other recently discovered and highly threatened or even extinct plant species in the Cameroon Highlands, and the importance of their conservation. The new species was previously identified as Lychnodiscus grandifolius Radlk., but differs in the shorter length of the distal leaflets (12 – 18 cm vs 22 – 39 cm long); in the abaxial leaf surface lacking glands (vs glands flat and conspicuous); in being sparsely hairy all over (vs glabrous except the main veins) and in its larger flowers, 8 – 11 mm long at anthesis (vs 5 – 7 mm long). We present an identification key of the species of Lychnodiscus and discuss their classification in the context of recent molecular phylogenetic and phylogenomic studies. The authors contend that Lychnodiscus Radlk., previously placed in Cupanieae by Radlkofer, should now be placed in the reconstituted Nephelieae in the revised 2021 intrafamilial classification of Buerki et al., probably close to the genera Aporrhiza Radlk. and Laccodiscus Radlk. However, until the genus is included in molecular studies this cannot be confirmed and a sister relationship remains speculative.

Soil greenhouse gas fluxes and net global warming potential from two maize farming practices in the Bamenda highlands, Cameroon

Farming practices used in maize crop production are thought to modify greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from the soil particularly methane (CH4), carbon dioxide (CO2), and nitrous oxide (N2O). The quantities of these GHG fluxes have rarely been estimated from smallholder farms in Sub-Saharan Africa. We estimated the quantities of GHG fluxes and Global Warming Potential (GWP) from the Push-Pull Technology (PPT) and Tillage with the Formation of Ridges (TFR) farming systems at the University of Bamenda, Cameroon. Greenhouse gases were sampled bi-monthly from April to Early August 2020 using the static chamber technique. The experiment followed a split-plot randomized complete block design with two replicates and three planting distances (1 m, 1.5 m, and 2 m) used as treatments. Mean cumulative CH4 (5.39 kgCH4-Cha−1) and N2O (1.03 kgN2O-Nha−1) emissions under TFR were significantly higher (P < 0.05) than mean CH4 (3.59 kgCH4-Cha−1) and N2O (0.52 kgN2O-Nha−1) emissions under PPT system. Mean net-GWP under PPT followed the trend 2 m (−267.61 tCO2-eqha−1) < 1.5 m (−75.76 tCO2-eqha−1) < 1 m (−24.95 tCO2-eqha−1) while under TFR, net-GWP was ordered 1 m (0.38 tCO2-eq ha−1) < 1.5 m (85.29 tCO2-eq ha−1) < 2 m (288.41 tCO2-eq ha−1) with significant differences between them. Maize grain yields under PPT were in the trend 1 m (0.81 tha−1) < 2 m (0.85 tha−1) < 1.5 m (0.92 tha−1) with a significant difference (P < 0.05) between 1 m and 1,5 m treatments. While under TFR, the trend was 2 m (0.56 tha−1) < 1 m (0.77 tha−1) < 1.5 m (0.80 tha−1) with significant difference between 1.5 m and 2 m (P < 0.05). On average, PPT was a sink to GWP (−122.77 tCO2-eqha−1) and revealed higher (P < 0.05) yields (0.86 tha−1) than TFR (0.71 tha−1) which was a source of GWP (124.69 tCO2-eqha−1). Therefore, a PPT practice of 1.5 m planting distance is recommended in Sub-Saharan Africa to enhance food productivity while mitigating global warming by minimizing soil greenhouse gas emissions.

Passive acoustic monitoring of endangered endemic Afromontane tropical species: A case study with two turacos

AbstractPassive acoustic monitoring (PAM) is a reliable method for studying the behaviour and ecology of vocally active animals, providing insights into species' activity patterns. Here, we utilised a year‐long recording programme conducted in six areas of the Afromontane tropical forest of Cameroon to assess the utility of PAM, describe the annual and circadian vocal activity patterns, and assess the relationship between vocal activity and climate conditions for two African turaco species: the endemic and Endangered Bannerman's turaco (Tauraco bannermani) and the common, but locally at risk, Great blue turaco (Corythaeola cristata). The automated software detected 8670 vocalisations of Bannerman's turaco and 374 of the Great blue turaco, proving the ability of passive acoustics, coupled with automated software, for monitoring these species. Our findings suggest that both turacos are sedentary and seasonal breeders, exhibiting larger peaks of vocal activity during the dry season, although both species showed smaller activity peaks during the wet season. Similar circadian patterns were observed for both species, with activity peaks occurring at dawn and dusk. Long‐term monitoring programmes of both species should be implemented in the study areas, especially regarding the Great blue turaco, which may soon disappear from Bamenda Highlands.

Rainfall reliability and maize production in the Bamenda Highlands of Cameroon

The long-term average rainfall for a given period (month, season or year) scarcely indicates reliability because rainfall in low latitudes varies significantly from one year to the other. The less variable rainfall is, the more reliable it is, as the index of variability measures the likelihood of repetition in the mean amount of rainfall. This study bridges some gaps in related studies in the Bamenda Highlands, such as a study assessing climate change impacts on food security, where the Rainfall Anomaly Index was used and another study on the impact of rainfall on maize production using the Standardized Precipitation Index. The objectives of this study are to assess rainfall reliability and establish the impact of rainfall reliability on maize production. Rainfall data were collected from 15 stations, while maize output was collected for four localities. Results revealed that rainfall is still reliable for 13 stations, with a coefficient of variations of 9.62 to 18.54 %, while Ndop and Ndawara recorded unreliable rainfall of 23.14 % and 30.97 % respectively. Rainfall reliability was complemented by the Standardized Precipitation Index, which showed that only 53.45 % of rainfall episodes were normal to sustain maize production, while 46.55 % were events of rainfall deficits. Maize production has been decreasing in Ndu, Oku and Nkum while increasing in Ndop. These findings reflect the realities of other tropical mountainous regions in the world. Faced with future climatic uncertainties, farmers should embrace agroecological practices, climate-smart agriculture, conservation agriculture, Nature-based Solutions, Ecosystem-based Adaptation and diversification of production systems and livelihood sources to ensure food security.

Discovery and conservation of Monanthotaxis bali (Annonaceae) a new Critically Endangered (possibly extinct) montane forest treelet from Bali Ngemba, North West Region, Cameroon

SummaryMonanthotaxis bali is the only known, solely montane (occurring solely above 2000 m alt.) species of the genus. It joins M. orophila (Rwanda) and M. discolor (Tanzania), two other species that can also occur above 2000 m alt. Monanthotaxis bali is an addition to the small number (28) of the tree species of the surviving montane forests of the Cameroon Highlands of which only eight other species are endemic. Due to its supra-axillary inflorescences, and petals arranged in one whorl but with the outer petals overlapping the inner petals distally, and rounded flower buds, the new species is placed in Monanthotaxis clade B of Hoekstra. The new species is unusual in having the largest outer petals in clade B, in being a treelet in a predominantly lianescent genus, and in lacking the glaucous underside of the leaf-blades that usually characterises the genus. Monanthotaxis bali takes the number of continental African species of the genus to 80, and makes Cameroon, with 30 species, the most species-diverse country for the genus. Monanthotaxis bali is known only from the Bali Ngemba Forest Reserve, a forest remnant under great pressure of degradation and clearance in the Bamenda Highlands of Cameroon. The case for protecting Bali Ngemba for its unique plant biodiversity is made. Monanthotaxis bali may already be extinct due to logging and agricultural activities. Here it is described, illustrated, mapped and assessed as Critically Endangered (Possibly Extinct) using the IUCN 2012 criteria.

Vepris onanae (Rutaceae), a new Critically Endangered cloud-forest tree species, and the endemic plant species of Bali Ngemba Forest Reserve, Bamenda Highlands Cameroon

SummaryWe revise and update the records of strict and near-endemic species of the Bali Ngemba Forest Reserve, the largest known surviving patch (c. 8 km2 in area) of submontane or cloud forest in the Bamenda Highlands, Cameroon which have lost >96 % of their original forest due to human activities. Nine strict endemics, and 11 near endemics are now documented, a drop from the number recorded after the first survey in 2004, since when five of the provisionally named species have been validly published. We test the hypothesis that a further one of the provisionally named putative Bali Ngemba new species, Vepris sp. A, an 8 – 20 m tall tree from cloud forest in the 1310 – 1700 m altitudinal band, is indeed new to science. We compare it morphologically with other multicarpellate, apocarpous, trifoliolate Cameroon tree species formerly placed in the genus Oricia Pierre until they were subsumed into Vepris by Mziray (1992). These are V. trifoliolata (Engl.) Mziray and V. gabonensis (Pierre) Mziray. We conclude that Vepris sp. A is a new undescribed species here named as Vepris onanae. The new species is illustrated, mapped and its conservation status assessed as Critically Endangered using the 2012 IUCN standard due to severe fragmentation and the threats of habitat clearance from agricultural pressures at its three locations all of which remain formally unprotected. Vepris onanae appears unique among the Guineo-Congolian African oricioid species of Vepris in that it occurs in cloud forest, the other species, apart from V. renieri (G.C.C.Gilbert) Mziray of the Albertine Rift, occurring in lowland forest. It also differs in the very broad, (7.8 –) 11.3 – 18 cm wide leaflets of the flowering stems which have a 6 – 18 (– 30) mm long, narrowly triangular acumen (vs leaflets <12 cm wide, acumen absent or short) and in having both subsessile and pedicellate (pedicels 0.25 – 0.3 mm long and 1 (– 2) mm long) male flowers (vs male flower pedicels all sessile, or all c. 3 mm long). We report for the first time on stage-dependent leaf heteromorphy in Vepris and characterise a level of sexual dimorphism more advanced than usual in the genus. We highlight the importance of protecting Bali Ngemba and other forest patches in the Bamenda Highlands if species such as Vepris onanae are not soon to become extinct.

Lifting the lid on Land Cover/ Use change and its effects on local ecosystems in the Bamenda highlands of Cameroon

The goals of this study were to use remote sensing and a Geographic Information System to track land use and cover change in Cameroon’s Bamenda highlands and to assess the effects of these changes on the local ecosystem. Supervised classification using the maximum likelihood classification algorithm was used to extract information from Landsat time series images from 2000 to 2018. The classification was relatively acceptable and effective in detecting land-use changes in the area. Between 2000 and 2010, farmland increased by 10.29%, and by 2018, it had increased by 14.39%. Similarly, plantations expanded by 15.07 km2 (4.1%) between 2000 and 2010, reaching 20.51 km2 (5.58%) by 2018, while built-up areas increased by 0.51% between 2000 and 2010, reaching 1.43% by 2018. These increases came at the expense of forest, savannah, and waterbodies, which were reduced by 3.93%, 10.33%, and 17.17%, respectively. Savannah had a strong negative correlation with a built-up area (R2 = 1), and plantation area (R2 = .98). As a consequence, the increase of built-up areas and plantation farms could be at the cost of the reduction in savannah and forestlands. On the whole, increased deforestation, growth in plantations, built-ups, and farmlands, have had an impact on the area’s ecosystem structure and functions. The findings are critical for developing environmental management policies and ecological integrity of the area. Water, energy, food security, climate mitigation, and agroecological sustainability policies, as well as their synergies and tradeoffs in the context of sustainable development goals, are important research areas.

Impact of Rainfall Variability on Maize Production in the NDOP Plain, North West Region of Cameroon (1990-2015)

This study assesses the impact of rainfall patterns from 1990-2015 on maize production in the NDOP Plain of the Bamenda Highlands of Cameroon since maize is a staple food and cash crop in the area. Data on rainfall and maize output were collected from 1990 to 2015 and represented in time series. The rainfall data were further analysed using Rainfall Anomaly Index (RAI), to establish critical periods of rainfall deficiencies. Results indicate that rainfall and maize production trends were increasing from 146.94 mm/month in 1990 to 220.03 mm/month in 2015 and ~0.28 tons/ha in 1990 to ~4.2 tons/ha in 2015 respectively. With uncertainties on the future of the rainfall pattern, the coefficient of variation was 22.03% (unreliable), and farmers should build resilience through agroecology, climate-smart agriculture, conservation agriculture and diversification of production systems.

Ecological Change Detection in Northeastern Bamenda Highlands, Cameroon, Based on Spatio-temporal Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (1979-2020)

Mountains are amongst the landforms that have undergone the most transformation. Landscape changes in mountains are driven by anthropogenic stressors and climatic change. The UN Sustainable development Goal 15 recognized the importance of conservation of mountain ecosystems for an enhancement of sustainable development. This study seeks to evaluate spatio-temporal ecological changes in the Northeastern Bamenda Highlands, based on a remote sensing-derived mountain green cover index proxy, the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI). The study showed vegetation greening and browning trends exemplified by degraded montane forest linked to anthropogenic stressors and natural climatic shift. These anthropogenic stressors include deforestation, conversion of forest to farmlands and eucalyptus plantations, and the unsustainable grazing with inter-annual use of fires for pasture regeneration. As a means to ensure future ecological services provision of these highlands, landscape restoration strategies are needed. The greening of the highlands with water retaining trees species, sustainable grazing and farming restrictions in protected areas and its buffers.

Gender, ethnicity and vulnerability to climate change: The case of matrilineal and patrilineal societies in Bamenda Highlands Region, Cameroon

Intersectionality is gaining credence in explaining the complexities in rural women’s vulnerability to the impacts of climate change. This study is framed on the assumption that rural women are likely to be affected differently by climate change due to cultural differences. The life history approach was utilised to conduct empirical research in the Bamenda Highlands Region, Cameroon on ethnicity and differential effects of climate change among female farmers in the communities of Kom and Oku representing a matrilineal and patrilineal communities respectively. The research found that single and married women in both matrilineal and patrilineal societies experienced similar patterns of vulnerability relating to socio-economic and cultural discrimination stemming from patriarchal dominance. However, the study also highlighted that contrary to other communities women are not more economically empowered under matrilineal systems than their counterparts in patrilineal societies. In contrast, widows in patrilineal societies were found to have more autonomy in the control of land and other resources than those in matrilineal societies. The study contributes to growing interest in the cultural dimensions of vulnerability to climate change and recommends the inclusion of cultural perspectives in the design and implementation of adaption policies, programs and actions.

Nocturnal singing by diurnal birds in Afrotropical highlands

Most bird species are active by day. However, even typically diurnal species have been observed to sing by night, although the functions and mechanisms of this behaviour are not well understood. In our study, we focused on nocturnal singing by diurnal birds in Afrotropical highlands (Bamenda Highlands, Cameroon). We recorded 48-h soundscapes in 18 random recording sites using autonomous sound recorders to examine the occurrence and intensity of nocturnal singing among diurnal birds. We applied three definitions of night—the time period between: (1) astronomical, (2) nautical and (3) civil dusk and dawn, which may include or exclude beginning of dawn chorus from the night-time period. We recorded 53 bird species, representing seven orders and 27 families. Of 50 typically diurnal species, only three sang by astronomical night, producing in total 10 songs. Applying the nautical night definition did not change the meaning of the results—the same three species produced 12 vocalisations. By civil night, 21 species were recorded singing. From the analysed 2128 vocalisations produced by civil night, 2109 were produced during 25 min period between nautical and civil dawn (22–47 min before sunrise), what suggests that civil night covers the beginning of dawn chorus and should not be considered as a nighttime. Our study reveals that in Afrotropical highlands, unlike in temperate regions, diurnal birds stay silent at night. Using astronomical and nautical definition of night gives similar results. The intensive singing recorded between nautical and civil dawn (included into nautical night), we interpreted as the beginning of dawn chorus rather than true night singing. We suggest that precise definition of nighttime is required to compare the results of different studies and to better understand the phenomenon of night singing by diurnal birds.

Variation in Total Soil Organic Carbon Stocks in Relation to Some Land Use Systems in the Bamenda Highlands, Cameroon

Climate change and food security are among the pressing challenges facing humanity in the 21st century. Soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks, total nitrogen (TN), texture, and bulk density (BD) are important soil properties, which control climate change. Three land use systems (smallholder farmlands, grazing lands, and forest lands) that coexist in the Bamenda Highlands (BH) influence ecosystem services and induce soil degradation with the loss of SOC. The objective of this study was to evaluate the variation of SOC and some soil physicochemical properties as affected by the three land use systems (LUS). A total of 21 composite soil samples collected from 7 microclimatic zones of BH following “S” shape plots to the depth of 0 - 30 cm, were analysed for moisture content (MC), SOC, TN, BD, available phosphorus (Av.P), pH and texture. The results revealed that grazing land had the lowest mean sand content (40.79 ± 4.07). Mean MC, TN and SOC (%) content were significantly higher (p in forest land than those in the grazing land and smallholder farmlands. Conversely, BD and Av.P were significantly higher (p in smallholder farmlands than grazing and forest lands probably due to different litter accumulation and agricultural practices. Moisture content and TN revealed positive significant correlations (p 0.05) with SOC, while BD and Av.P revealed negative significant correlations (p 0.05). Mean SOC density in smallholder farmlands (132.91 ± 9.48 tC/ha) was the lowest among the three land use types. Losses in CO2 equivalence, as a result of land use change from forest lands to smallholder farmlands were 137.33 t/ha while that from grazing lands to smallholder farmlands were 109.13 t/ha. Total organic carbon (TOC) stocks differed significantly (p 0.05) from smallholder farmlands (10.73 Mt) to forest lands (91.13 Mt). A sustainable farming technique that enhances SOC sequestration and minimizes soil CO2 emissions is therefore recommended to replace tillage ridges formation commonly practiced by smallholder farmers.

Standardized Precipitation Index Valuation of Seasonal Transitions and Adaptation of Pastoralist to Climate Variability in Rangelands of the Bamenda Highlands of Cameroon

The pastoral community in the Bamenda Highlands of Cameroon continues to face multi-faceted stresses related to climate and the environment. Previous studies have focused more on climate variability in relation to agriculture and water resources, with little or no insights into highland rangeland ecology. These shocks add to the common pool rangeland security issues with unsecure pastoral tenure, land grabbing, rangeland degradation, poor land use planning, dwindling range resources, amongst others. Rainfall data was collected from 13 stations covering the region to understand the climate trend. The Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) was used to the recurrence of meteorological droughts, vis-à-vis transhumance. Results show discernable impacts of climate variability on the pastoral landscape especially related to prolonged dry seasons, pasture scarcity, poor land use practices notably seasonal bush fires, stocking densities and overgrazing. Indigenous knowledge identified pasture scarcity, weed invasion, poor range products, cattle mortality, degradation, land use conflicts, dwindling water resources as related effects. Due to these growing difficulties within the grazing landscape, pastoral communities have resorted to growing partnerships with development agencies to develop more resilience as a result of past challenges grappling with the nefarious effects of climate change. Cultivating improve pastures, fodder crops, developing water schemes and adjusting the grazing calendar are some adaptation measures. Technical and financial resources need to be transferred for risk mitigation and building capacities to reduce the vulnerability of pastoral communities for a sustained future.

Land Characteristics And Agricultural Suitability Status Along A Toposequence In Santa, Bamenda Highlands, Cameroon

Soil degradation is common in mountainous zones due to their rugged topography. This work aims to characterize mountainous ecosystem soils in Santa (Cameroon) and to evaluate their fertility status along the slope. Four soil profiles including P1= Dystric Protostagnic Gleysol (differentic); P2= ChromicDystric Cambisol (Clayic, differentic); P3= Chromic Dystric Cambisol (clayic, differentic); P4= Leptic Cambisol) developed on basalt were described, sampled and analyzed at four respective topographic positions (footslope, backslope, shoulder and summit).

Impact of cultural beliefs on smallholders’ response to climate change: the case of Bamenda Highlands, Cameroon

ABSTRACT Farmers’ perceptions and responses to climate change vary across Africa. This paper investigates the impacts of cultural beliefs on smallholders’ perceptions and responses to climate change and the implicit gender relations. A field visit was conducted in the Oku community, Bamenda Highlands, Cameroon in 2015 using open-ended questions. Witchcraft and ancestral retribution were the predominant beliefs associated with the causes of climate change and adaptation strategies. Therefore, the cultural dimension should be considered when planning climate change awareness programmes and during the design of adaptation policies.

Constraints to the Development of Ecotourism Potentials along the Babessi-Oku Axis, North West Region of Cameroon

Tourism has become one of the world’s largest industries, with an estimated US$ 3 trillion in annual revenues and expanding at an average rate of 4-5 per cent annually. Since the 1950s, the global market for international travel and tourism has exhibited uninterrupted growth. As the world is becoming a global village, (eco) tourists are looking for new attractions and these are well represented in Cameroon at large and in the Bamenda Highlands in particular. The Bamenda Highlands, on which the Babessi-Oku Axis is found, is one of the most spectacular ecotourism destinations in the country characterized by gentle undulating hilly savanna, patches of forest, lakes, waterfalls, mountains and an amazing cultural diversity. The main objective of this study was to examine the constraints to the development of ecotourism sector along the Babessi-Oku Axis and to develop a sustainable ecotourism management model to address these constraints. Data for this study were obtained through primary and secondary sources. Primary sources of data included: personal interviews, field observation, the use of camera, Geographic Positioning Systems (GPS), questionnaires and the use of Focus Group Discussions (FGDs). Secondary sources included: materials from published and unpublished works related to the current study, maps and the exploitation of aerial photographs. Findings revealed that there are a plethora of constraints plaguing the ecotourism sector along the Babessi-Oku Axis and these include: degradation of the Oku Montane Forest, poaching, forest destruction for agricultural purposes, extinction of fauna biodiversity, and lack of community participation among others. An ecotourism development model for the study area has been developed in order to sustainably address these ecotourism constraints along the Babessi-Oku Axis.

Duration of survey changes interpretation of habitat preferences: an example of an endemic tropical songbird, the Bangwa Forest Warbler

Understanding the distribution, habitat preferences and population trends is crucial to effectively manage and protect birds. Currently, in this area, there are disproportionally more studies on temperate than on tropical species. Consequently managing, protecting and predicting population trends in tropical birds can be difficult. In our study we investigated detectability, distribution and habitat preferences of an endemic songbird, the Bangwa Forest Warbler Bradypterus bangwaensis (BFW) in the Bamenda Highlands (NW Cameroon). We used autonomous sound recorders to detect the BFW at 192 points and described habitat around these points. The survey was conducted from one hour before sunrise to three hours after sunrise. BFW was widespread within the study area, recorded at 65% of surveyed points. The probability of detecting BFW ranged from 26% during the first hour before sunrise to 93% during three-hour survey (from one hour before sunrise to two hours after sunrise). Three of ten habitat characteristics significantly affected BFW occurrence: altitude (negatively), vegetation cover at 3–5 m (positively) and at 5–10 m (negatively) above ground. Varying survey duration (one, two, three or four hours) and then comparing distribution patterns obtained from species occurrence of each survey duration illustrated that different habitat features were identified as relevant to BFW occurrence. We showed that BFW is a habitat generalist, inhabiting different types of montane bush. Deforestation may cause population declines of this species. We suggest that the counting methods based on short-time survey duration may be inaccurate in tropical environments, at least for detecting species similar to the BFW, which sings irregularly, and is detected mostly only aurally. Autonomous sound recording might be an effective alternative to the traditional approach to determination of bird distribution in such cases, because it enables increasing survey duration, appropriate sampling in time and increased probability of species detection.

Wild edible plants and mushrooms of the Bamenda Highlands in Cameroon: ethnobotanical assessment and potentials for enhancing food security

BackgroundIn seasons of food shortage, local communities across Africa use wild edible plants and mushrooms (WEPM) that contribute significantly to food security by supplementing households’ diets and providing alternative income. In the Bamenda Highlands of Cameroon, their biodiversity is believed to be rapidly declining as a result of land use change. Despite their potential beneficial values, there has been only limited research on this topic in this area. This study aims to document traditional knowledge related to the use of plants and mushrooms for food purpose by indigenous people of the Bamenda highland.MethodEthnobotanical surveys were conducted in 6 localities (Mbengwi, Bafut, Nkwen, Mankon, Bambili, and Widikum) of the Bamenda Highlands of Cameroon, and 121 individuals were interviewed on commonly gathered and eaten WEPMs and their perception on their availability. Respondents were permanent residents selected based on their willingness to participate in the study. Specimens of recorded plants were collected and processed for future identification at the National Herbarium of Cameroon. Their nutritional potentials are discussed based on available literature.ResultsA total of 47 species were recorded including leafy vegetable, spices, fruits, roots/tubers, and mushrooms. The top 5 most frequent are Amaranthus sp. (6.6%), Termitomyces clypeatus (6.4%), Irvingia gabonensis (5.2%), Ricinodendron heudelotii (5.1%), and Aframomum sp. (4.5%). Leafy vegetable and spices are the most diversified group with 13 species each. All recorded species are important from nutritional and pharmaceutical points. However, many of their values remain uninvestigated, while their natural populations are facing threats of degradation.ConclusionWEPMs have great potential to contribute to food and nutritional security in the study area. Sound nutrients and metabolites profiling of poorly known species can enhance their contribution in addressing food insecurity.

Multi-tracer (δ18O, δD, 3H, CFCs and SF6) investigation of groundwater recharge and apparent age at the Bamenda Highlands along the Cameroon volcanic line

The Bamenda Highlands contains numerous dilute and soda springs of unknown hydrological provenance. These dilute springs are a vital source of drinking water to the inhabitants. As a contribution to water management, this study investigated the spring water recharge, residence time and sub-surface circulation using δ18O, δD, 3H, CFCs, SF6 and TDS. A plot of both water types along the local meteoric water line indicated the meteoric origin and rapid recharge following precipitation. Dilute springs with a δ18O altitude effect of 0.27/100 m suggested recharge at different elevations. The CFC-12, CFC-11 and CFC-113 dating (complemented by 3H) showed reasonable young apparent ages of dilute springs ranging from 21 to > 52 (mean/median of 25) years and old soda springs (> 52 years). SF6 concentrations in dilute springs revealed exceptionally young ages relative to CFCs modelled ages suggesting a terrigenous enrichment of the former. Thus, groundwater dating with SF6 is unreliable in the area. Besides the old apparent ages of soda springs, their highly depleted δ18O and high TDS (mean of 1396 mg/l) indicated palaeo-recharge and high water–rock interaction, respectively. In contrast, the low TDS of dilute springs (< 140 mg/l) indicated low-water interaction. Most dilute springs showed exponential mixing models indicating heterogeneous recharge under unconfined aquifer conditions. Conversely, the old soda springs displayed piston flow and binary mixing models. The meteoric recharge and similar residence time of the shallow dilute springs suggested natural resilience to short-term changes in climatic conditions. Thus, low shallow groundwater abstraction is sustainable at the Bamenda Highlands.

Indigenous Knowledge and Farmer Perceptions of Climate and Ecological Changes in the Bamenda Highlands of Cameroon: Insights from the Bui Plateau

Anticipating seasonal and shorter time scale dynamics to farming practices is primordial for indigenous farmers’ resilience under extreme environmental conditions, where climate change is a menace to agro-hydro-ecological systems. This paper assesses the effectiveness of indigenous farmers’ knowledge and aptitude to read weather signs for informed decisions on their daily and seasonal activities. Such climate-proof development is anchored on indigenous people’s knowledge and perceptions in circumstances where the dearth of scientific evidence or information exists as in Cameroon. The study is based on eight focus group discussions and a survey of 597 farming households in seven agro-ecological basins on the Bui Plateau of the Bamenda Highlands. The results indicate that indigenous smallholder farmers value their ability to accurately observe and anticipate local conditions in various ways to serve their local realities more aptly than outside forecasts. Such local knowledge should thus exercise a complementary role weave in a local climate information understanding system that replicates ecological variability.