Balloon De-endothelialization Research Articles

IVUS\\IVPA hybrid intravascular molecular imaging of angiogenesis in atherosclerotic plaques via RGDfk peptide-targeted nanoprobes

Current intravascular imaging modalities face hurdles in the molecular evaluation of progressed plaques. This study aims to construct a novel hybrid imaging system (intravascular ultrasound/intravascular photoacoustic, IVPA/IVUS) via RGDfk peptide-targeted nanoparticles for monitoring angiogenesis in progressed atherosclerotic plaques in a rabbit model. An atherosclerotic rabbit model was induced by abdominal aorta balloon de-endothelialization followed by a high-fat diet. A human serum albumin (HSA)-based nanoprobe modified with RGDfk peptide was constructed by encapsulating indocyanine green (ICG) via electrostatic force (ICG-HSA-RGDfk NPs, IHR-NPs). A hybrid intravascular imaging system that combined IVUS and IVPA was self-assembled for RGDfk visualization within atherosclerotic plaques in the rabbit abdominal aorta. Through IHR-NPs and the hybrid IVUS/IVPA imaging platform, multiple comprehensive pieces of information on progressed plaques, including anatomical information, composition information and molecular information, can be obtained simultaneously, which may improve the precise diagnosis of plaque characteristics and the evaluation of early interventions for atherosclerosis.

Multimodality Imaging of Angiogenesis in a Rabbit Atherosclerotic Model by GEBP11 Peptide Targeted Nanoparticles.

Background and Aims: Angiogenesis is an important pathological process during progression of plaque formation, which can result in plaque hemorrhage and vulnerability. This study aims to explore non-invasive imaging of angiogenesis in atherosclerotic plaque through magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and positron emission tomography (PET) by using GEBP11 peptide targeted magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles in a rabbit model of atherosclerosis.Methods: The dual-modality imaging probe was constructed by coupling 2, 3-dimercaptosuccinnic acid-coated paramagnetic nanoparticles (DMSA-MNPs) and the PET 68Ga chelator 1,4,7-triazacyclononane-N, N', N''-triacetic acid (NOTA) to GEBP11 peptide. The atherosclerosis model was induced in New Zealand white rabbits by abdominal aorta balloon de-endothelialization and atherogenic diet for 12 weeks. The plaque areas in abdominal artery were detected by ultrasound imaging and Oil Red O staining. Immunofluorescence staining and Prussian blue staining were applied respectively to investigate the affinity of GEBP11 peptide. MTT and flow cytometric analysis were performed to detect the effects of NGD-MNPs on cell proliferation, cell cycle and apoptosis in Human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). In vivo MRI and PET imaging of atherosclerotic plaque were carried out at different time points after intravenous injection of nanoparticles.Results: The NGD-MNPs with hydrodynamic diameter of 130.8 nm ± 7.1 nm exhibited good imaging properties, high stability, low immunogenicity and little cytotoxicity. In vivo PET/MR imaging revealed that 68Ga-NGD-MNPs were successfully applied to visualize atherosclerotic plaque angiogenesis in the rabbit abdominal aorta. Prussian blue and CD31 immunohistochemical staining confirmed that NGD-MNPs were well co-localized within the blood vessels' plaques.Conclusion: 68Ga-NGD-MNPs might be a promising MR and PET dual imaging probe for visualizing the vulnerable plaques.

Simvastatin Decreases Stent‐Induced In‐Stent Restenosis Rate Via Downregulating the Expression of PCNA and Upregulating that of p27kip1

The inhibition of the proliferation and migration of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC) is one cholesterol-independent effect of statins that could lower the rate of in-stent restenosis (ISR), even if the exact mechanism remains unclear. The aim of this study was to explore the exact inhibitory mechanisms of simvastatin on ISR in vivo. Forty-five rabbits were randomized into 3 feeding groups of equal size (n=15): normal rabbit chow (normal group), a high-cholesterol diet (control group), and a simvastatin-enriched high-cholesterol diet (simvastatin group). Balloon de-endothelialization was first performed in the control and simvastatin groups after 3 days, followed by stent deployment at week 14. All rabbits were killed at week 18, and the histological changes of the ISR segments were observed. The expressions of cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p27 (p27kip1), proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), and α-smooth muscle (α-SM) actin were measured. In the simvastatin group compared to the control group, the neointimal thickness, neointimal area, and degree of stenosis decreased, while the residual lumen area increased significantly (P<0.05). Moreover, the expression of α-SM actin in the control group decreased by 55.4% compared to the normal group, while it increased by 29.7% with respect to the simvastatin group (P<0.05). Finally, the expression of p27kip1 increased, while that of PCNA decreased significantly in the simvastatin group compared to the control group (P<0.05). Simvastatin may inhibit VSMC phenotype modulation and proliferation by downregulating the expression of PCNA and upregulating that of p27kip1.

Dietary antioxidants improve arteriogenic erectile dysfunction

Most cases of erectile dysfunction (ED) are associated with oxidative stress risk factors such as diabetes mellitus, smoking, hypercholesterolaemia and hypertension. Our goal was to search for markers of oxidative stress in arteriogenic ED and examine the protective role of dietary antioxidants. Atherosclerosis-induced ED was developed in rabbits by balloon de-endothelialization of the iliac arteries. Ballooned and age-matched control animals were assigned into subgroups receiving pomegranate extract antioxidants in drinking water or tap water as placebo. After 8 weeks, penile blood flow and erectile activity were recorded. Erectile tissue relaxation, oxidative products, oxidative stress-responsive genes and structure were examined using organ bath, enzyme immunoassay, quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction and transmission electron microscopy, respectively. Arterial ballooning caused diffused atherosclerosis, decreased intracavernosal blood flow and led to ED. Impairment of endothelium-dependent relaxation, diffused fibrosis, increased oxidative products, upregulation of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and aldose reductase (AR) gene expression, mitochondrial and endothelial structural damage and increased caveolae were evident in erectile tissues from atherosclerotic animals receiving placebo. Upregulation of antioxidant enzymes SOD and AR failed to protect ischaemic erectile tissue from oxidative injury. Pomegranate extract significantly improved intracavernosal blood flow, erectile activity, smooth muscle relaxation and fibrosis of the atherosclerotic group in comparison with the atherosclerotic group receiving placebo, but did not normalize them to the age-matched control levels. Pomegranate extract appeared more effective in diminishing oxidative products, preventing SOD and AR gene upregulation, and protecting mitochondrial, endothelial and caveolae structural integrity of the atherosclerotic group. Our data suggest the presence of oxidative stress in ED and a more efficient action of antioxidants on molecular and ultrastructural alterations than on distinct functional deficit and structural damage in the ischaemic penis.

Oxidative stress and neurodegeneration in penile ischaemia

To seek markers of oxidative stress and examine neural structural integrity in chronic penile ischaemia using a rabbit model of arteriogenic erectile dysfunction (ED), as the role of ischaemia in penile neuropathy and the oxidative mechanism of neurodegeneration in ED remains unknown. A rabbit model of atherosclerosis-induced ED was developed by partial balloon de-endothelialization of the iliac arteries. After 10 weeks, intracavernosal blood flow and erectile function in the arteriogenic ED group were compared with age-matched controls. Erectile tissues were processed for analysis of oxidative stress markers and nerve fibre density using enzyme immunoassay and immunohistochemical staining, respectively. Oxidative stress-sensitive genes were determined with quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction. Tissue ultrastructure was examined by transmission electron microscopy. Significant erectile tissue ischaemia, erectile dysfunction, increased levels of oxidative products, and marked nitrotyrosine immunoreactivity was evident in the ED group. Oxidative stress-sensitive genes encoding hypoxia inducible factor-1alpha (HIF-1alpha), superoxide dismutase (SOD), aldose reductase (AR) and nerve growth factor (NGF) were up-regulated in the ischaemic erectile tissue. These changes were associated with collapsed axonal and Schwann cell profiles, neurodegeneration, mitochondrial structural damage, increased caveolae, loss of endothelium, and sporadic vacuolization. Neuropathy appears to follow the vascular insult in arteriogenic ED. Neural injury in penile ischaemia involves a neurovascular phenomenon mediated by oxidative free radicals. Mitochondrial structural damage and increased HIF-1alpha gene expression may be early signals of oxidative stress and neurodegeneration in ED. Up-regulation of SOD, AR and NGF may be a coordinated defensive reaction to oxidative radicals that seems to fail to prevent neural injury in the ischaemic penis. Our study introduces the concept of oxidative neurodegeneration in the pathophysiology of arteriogenic ED. Therapeutic strategies to protect penile nerves from free radical incursion may enhance the efficacy of surgical and pharmacological interventions in arteriogenic ED.

Abstract 5790: Dual Molecular Imaging for Assessment of Matrix Metalloproteinase and Apoptosis in Atherosclerotic Lesions before and after Statin Therapy

We evaluated the correlation between matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) and apoptotic activities in atherosclerosis lesions, and the impact of lipid lowering by dietary modification and statin therapy employing molecular imaging with Tc-99m broad MMP inhibitor (MPI) and indium-111 annexin A5 (AA5). Atherosclerosis was produced in 13 New Zealand White rabbits by balloon deendothelialization and hypercholesterolemic diet for 4 months; 6 unmanipulated rabbits on normal chow were used as controls. In the last month, 3 of the 13 atherosclerotic rabbits were changed to normal chow, and 4 received fluvastatin (1mg/kg) once a day. MPI and AA5 imaging were performed using micro-SPECT/micro-CT. After in vivo imaging, aortas were explanted to acquire ex vivo images and calculate percent injected dose per gram (%ID/g) uptake. Histological and immunohistochemical characterization and extent of MMP and apoptosis were evaluated in representative aortic samples. Both MPI and Annexin uptake were clearly visualized in the atherosclerotic lesions by noninvasive imaging; No uptake were observed after diet withdrawal, fluvastatin, and in normal control groups. %ID/g MPI and AA5 uptakes in the atherosclerotic lesions (0.09 ± 0.02%, 0.03 ± 0.01%) were significantly higher than the uptake in control abdominal aorta (0.014 ± 0.004%, 0.0007 ± 0.0002%; p&lt;0.0001). The quantitative uptake in fluvastatin (0.053 ± 0.013%, 0.02 ± 0.01%; p&lt;0.05) and diet withdrawal (0.047 ± 0.005%, 0.02 ± 0.004%; p&lt;0.05) groups were statistically significantly lower compared to diet uninterrupted group. There were significant direct relationship betweem MPI and AA5 uptake in all experimental group (r=0.62, p&lt;0.0001). The decrease in the tracer uptake maintained the relationship in the fluvastatin group (r=0.62, p&lt;0.0001) but became less apparent in the diet withdrawal (r=0.24, p&lt;0.05). Histopathological and immunohisto-chemical studies revealed a significant correlation of both MPI and Annexin uptake with macrophage infiltration, MMP-2, 9 expression and the extent of apoptosis. Dual imaging with MPI and AA5 showed good correlation between apoptosis and MMP expression except diet withdrawal group.

Radiolabeled Monocyte Chemotactic Protein 1 for the Detection of Inflammation in Experimental Atherosclerosis

Chemotactic peptides, such as Monocyte Chemotactic Protein 1 (MCP-1), play a key role in transendothelial migration of mononuclear cells during the development and progression of atherosclerotic disease. Because atherosclerotic plaques that are precursors of acute coronary events harbor abundant macrophage infiltration, we hypothesized that the detection of a high concentration of MCP-1 receptors on inflammatory cells should noninvasively identify vulnerable plaques. Atherosclerotic lesions were induced by balloon deendothelialization of the abdominal aorta, which was followed by a 0.5% cholesterol diet for 16 wk in 7 New Zealand White rabbits; 5 unmanipulated rabbits, fed normal chow for 16 wk, were used as controls. Radionuclide imaging was performed immediately after intravenous (99m)Tc-labeled MCP-1 administration and 3 h later. At the end of imaging session, aortas were explanted and submitted for estimation of quantitative MCP-1 uptake (in percentage injected dose per gram, %ID/g) and pathologic characterization. Atherosclerotic lesions were clearly visible in all hyperlipidemic animal gamma-imaging. No tracer uptake was seen in the control rabbits. The mean quantitative MCP-1 uptake in atherosclerotic lesions was 4-fold higher than that of the aortic specimens from the control rabbits (0.065 +/- 0.005 vs. 0.016 +/- 0.006; P < 0.0001). Histology confirmed a strong correlation between MCP-1 uptake and the number of macrophages in American Heart Association type II-IV lesions (r = 0.87, P < 0.0001). Noninvasive radionuclide imaging of inflammation is feasible by MCP-1 in experimentally induced atherosclerosis. It is proposed that detection of the extent of inflammation in advanced atherosclerotic plaques may allow identification of unstable plaques.

Arterial wall cholesterol content is a predictor of development and severity of arterial thrombosis

It is unclear if total cholesterol content contributes to the severity of cardiovascular events by affecting the amount of thrombosis. This study evaluated relationships between cholesterol levels and the amount of thrombosis in an atherosclerotic rabbit model of plaque disruption and thrombosis. Three groups of NZW rabbits were used: normal rabbits (Group I, n = 4); atherosclerotic rabbits (Group II, n = 4); and atherosclerotic rabbits with pharmacologically triggered thrombosis (Group III, n = 16). Atherosclerosis was induced by feeding a cholesterol enriched diet and balloon deendothelialization. At post-mortem, platelet-rich thrombus and arterial wall cholesterol were quantified and histology performed by light and electron microscopy. Arterial wall cholesterol was strongly correlated to serum cholesterol in all groups (r = 0.94, p < 0.0001). There was a significant correlation between the thrombus surface area with arterial wall cholesterol in Group III (r = 0.71, p < 0.002). Serum cholesterol, arterial wall cholesterol, and thrombus surface area were all significantly correlated but only arterial wall cholesterol was an independent predictor of thrombosis. A threshold specific for this model was noted for serum and arterial cholesterol levels above which thrombosis consistently occurred. Arterial wall cholesterol was strongly correlated to serum cholesterol and thrombosis severity. Serum cholesterol, arterial wall cholesterol and thrombus surface area were all integrally related.A model of plaque disruption and thrombosis was used to demonstrate a correlation between serum and arterial wall cholesterol (r = 0.94; p < 0.0001); arterial wall cholesterol and the amount of thrombosis (surface area; r = 0.71, p < 0.002). A threshold of serum and arterial cholesterol was determined at which thrombosis occurred in this model.

The changes seen in balloon-injured porcine femoral arteries following sympathectomy

On the basis that vasoconstriction may contribute to restenosis following angioplasty, the influence of lumbar sympathectomy on the morphometry of femoral arteries after balloon injury was examined in a pig model. Twenty-six juvenile pigs underwent balloon de-endothelialization of the right femoral artery followed by an open bilateral lumbar sympathectomy ( n=14) or a sham sympathectomy ( n=12). Four weeks later flow was measured in femoral arteries. Animals were then killed and the femoral arteries were perfusion-fixed and harvested. Sympathectomy resulted in a significant ( P=0.04) increase in flow in both the injured (right) and uninjured (left) femoral arteries. Sympathectomy did not inhibit intimal thickening following balloon injury: median (interquartile range) intimal area was 0.4 mm 2 (0.3–0.9) in the sympathectomy group versus 0.5 mm 2 (0.4–0.9) in the sham group. Sympathectomy did, however, result in a significant ( P=0.02) increase in the lumen area: 1.1 mm 2 (0.8–1.8) versus 0.7 mm 2 (0.6–0.9). Sympathectomy may reduce vasospasm following angioplasty with the potential for clinical benefit.

RELATIVE ROLES OF CYCLOOXYGENASE AND NITRIC OXIDE SYNTHASE PATHWAYS IN ISCHEMIA-INDUCED INCREASED CONTRACTION OF CAVERNOSAL SMOOTH MUSCLE

Purpose To study the mechanism of chronic ischemia-induced increased cavernosal smooth muscle contraction in an animal model of vasculogenic erectile dysfunction. Materials and Methods New Zealand White rabbits were divided into control (n = 6, fed with a regular diet), hypercholesterolemic (n = 9, fed with a diet containing 0.5% cholesterol) and chronic cavernosal ischemia (CCI, n = 10, underwent balloon de-endothelialization of iliac arteries and received a diet containing 0.5% cholesterol) groups. After 16 weeks, the relationship between iliac artery blood flow and cavernosal smooth muscle contraction was studied. The roles of cyclooxygenase and nitric oxide (NO) pathways in chronic ischemia-induced increased smooth muscle contraction were also examined. Results Iliac artery blood flow in the CCI group was significantly reduced compared with the control and hypercholesterolemic groups. Hypercholesterolemia alone did not affect cavernosal smooth muscle contraction. Atherosclerosis-induced chronic cavernosal arterial insufficiency did not affect contraction to norepinephrine while causing a significant increase in electrical field stimulation-induced neurogenic contraction. Inhibition of the cyclooxygenase pathway by indomethacin decreased electrical field stimulation-induced contraction in all animals but failed to normalize the differences between CCI and control groups. In the presence of indomethacin, L-arginine decreased electrical field stimulation-induced contraction in the control and hypercholesterolemic groups but not in the CCI group. In the presence of indomethacin, treatment with nitric oxide synthase (NOS) inhibitor, N G-monomethyl-L-arginine (L-NMMA), increased electrical field stimulation-induced contraction in all groups. This effect of L-NMMA on smooth muscle contraction was significantly greater in the control and hypercholesterolemic groups compared with the CCI group. After tissue treatment with L-NMMA, the magnitude of contraction in cavernosal tissue from control and hypercholesterolemic groups was similar to those observed in the CCI group. Conclusions Mechanism of chronic ischemia-induced increased cavernosal smooth muscle contraction involves increased output of constrictor eicosanoids and impairment of the inhibitory influence of NO pathway in cavernosal tissue.

MECHANISMS OF ISCHEMIA-INDUCED CAVERNOSAL SMOOTH MUSCLE RELAXATION IMPAIRMENT IN A RABBIT MODEL OF VASCULOGENIC ERECTILE DYSFUNCTION

Purpose To determine the effects of hypercholesterolemia and atherosclerosis-induced chronic cavernosal arterial insufficiency on cavernosal smooth muscle tone, nitric oxide synthase (NOS) activity and cavernosal tissue synthesis of constrictor eicosanoids. To study whether inhibition of the cyclooxygenase pathway by indomethacin and tissue treatment with nitric oxide (NO) precursor L-arginine improve hypercholesterolemia and ischemia-induced impaired endothelium-dependent and neurogenic relaxation of cavernosal tissue. Materials and Methods New Zealand White rabbits were divided into control (n = 10, fed a regular diet), hypercholesterolemia (Hch, n = 13, fed a diet containing 0.5% cholesterol) and chronic cavernosal ischemia (CCI, n = 14) groups. The CCI group underwent balloon de-endothelialization of iliac arteries and received a diet containing 0.5% cholesterol. After 16 weeks, we examined the effects of Hch and balloon de-endothelialization induced arterial occlusive disease on iliac arterial blood flow, reactivity of cavernosal tissue, cavernosal NOS activity and cavernosal tissue synthesis of constrictor eicosanoids. Results Histology revealed significant atherosclerotic arterial occlusive disease in the CCI group. Iliac artery blood flow in the CCI group was significantly reduced compared with the control and Hch groups. In the Hch and CCI groups, endothelium-dependent relaxation of cavernosal tissue to acetylcholine was significantly reduced compared with the control group. Electrical field stimulation-induced neurogenic relaxation and cavernosal NOS activity were significantly reduced in the CCI group but not in the Hch group. The basal release of cavernosal constrictor eicosanoids, prostaglandin F 2 alpha (PGF 2 alpha) and thromboxane A 2 (TXA 2) was significantly increased in the CCI group. Indomethacin increased endothelium-dependent relaxation in all groups and neurogenic relaxation in the CCI group, but failed to normalize the differences in relaxation between treated and control groups. In the presence of indomethacin, L-arginine improved endothelium-dependent relaxation of cavernosal tissue in the Hch group but did not normalize endothelium-dependent or neurogenic relaxations in the CCI group. Relaxation to NO donor sodium nitroprusside and papaverine was similar in cavernosal tissue from all groups. Conclusions Impairment of endothelium-dependent relaxation by Hch occurs secondary to disruption of the NO formation in cavernosal endothelium. Improvement of endothelium-dependent relaxation by L-arginine may suggest lack of availability of L-arginine in cavernosal tissue from the Hch animals. Impairment of endothelium-dependent and neurogenic relaxation by CCI occurs secondary to disruption of the NO formation due to an alteration in the expression or activity of NOS and increased output of constrictor eicosanoids in cavernosal tissue. These studies show that Hch and atherosclerosis-induced chronic cavernosal arterial insufficiency, beyond decreasing cavernosal perfusion pressure, also adversely affect smooth muscle relaxation mechanisms in cavernosal tissue.

Mechanisms of ischemia-induced cavernosal smooth muscle relaxation impairment in a rabbit model of vasculogenic erectile dysfunction.

To determine the effects of hypercholesterolemia and atherosclerosis-induced chronic cavernosal arterial insufficiency on cavernosal smooth muscle tone, nitric oxide synthase (NOS) activity and cavernosal tissue synthesis of constrictor eicosanoids. To study whether inhibition of the cyclooxygenase pathway by indomethacin and tissue treatment with nitric oxide (NO) precursor L-arginine improve hypercholesterolemia and ischemia-induced impaired endothelium-dependent and neurogenic relaxation of cavernosal tissue. New Zealand White rabbits were divided into control (n = 10, fed a regular diet), hypercholesterolemia (Hch, n = 13, fed a diet containing 0.5% cholesterol) and chronic cavernosal ischemia (CCI, n = 14) groups. The CCI group underwent balloon deendothelialization of iliac arteries and received a diet containing 0.5% cholesterol. After 16 weeks, we examined the effects of Hch and balloon de-endothelialization induced arterial occlusive disease on iliac arterial blood flow, reactivity of cavernosal tissue, cavernosal NOS activity and cavernosal tissue synthesis of constrictor eicosanoids. Histology revealed significant atherosclerotic arterial occlusive disease in the CCI group. Iliac artery blood flow in the CCI group was significantly reduced compared with the control and Hch groups. In the Hch and CCI groups, endothelium-dependent relaxation of cavernosal tissue to acetylcholine was significantly reduced compared with the control group. Electrical field stimulation-induced neurogenic relaxation and cavernosal NOS activity were significantly reduced in the CCI group but not in the Hch group. The basal release of cavernosal constrictor eicosanoids, prostaglandin F2alpha (PGF2alpha) and thromboxane A2 (TXA2) was significantly increased in the CCI group. Indomethacin increased endothelium-dependent relaxation in all groups and neurogenic relaxation in the CCI group, but failed to normalize the differences in relaxation between treated and control groups. In the presence of indomethacin, L-arginine improved endothelium-dependent relaxation of cavernosal tissue in the Hch group but did not normalize endothelium-dependent or neurogenic relaxations in the CCI group. Relaxation to NO donor sodium nitroprusside and papaverine was similar in cavernosal tissue from all groups. Impairment of endothelium-dependent relaxation by Hch occurs secondary to disruption of the NO formation in cavernosal endothelium. Improvement of endothelium-dependent relaxation by L-arginine may suggest lack of availability of L-arginine in cavernosal tissue from the Hch animals. Impairment of endothelium-dependent and neurogenic relaxation by CCI occurs secondary to disruption of the NO formation due to an alteration in the expression or activity of NOS and increased output of constrictor eicosanoids in cavernosal tissue. These studies show that Hch and atherosclerosis-induced chronic cavernosal arterial insufficiency, beyond decreasing cavernosal perfusion pressure, also adversely affect smooth muscle relaxation mechanisms in cavernosal tissue.

CAVERNOSAL EXPANDABILITY IS AN ERECTILE TISSUE MECHANICAL PROPERTY WHICH PREDICTS TRABECULAR HISTOLOGY IN AN ANIMAL MODEL OF VASCULOGENIC ERECTILE DYSFUNCTION

Purpose Reliable, clinically available, non-invasive measurements able to predict trabecular histology without the need for erectile tissue biopsy would improve impotence management, since the percentage of trabecular smooth muscle content has been shown to be associated with corporal veno-occlusive dysfunction. The purpose was to identify whether the erectile tissue mechanical property, cavernosal expandability, correlated with the percentage of trabecular smooth muscle content in an animal model of hypercholesterolemia and ischemic-induced corporal fibrosis. Materials and Methods New Zealand White rabbits (6 to 7 months old, 3 to 3.5 kg.), were divided into control (n = 7), hypercholesterolemic (n = 5, 0.5% cholesterol diet) and atherosclerotic groups (n = 8, 0.5% cholesterol diet with balloon de-endothelialization). At 16 weeks, the corpora cavernosa were removed en bloc and submerged in physiologic salt solution, and volume-pressure data were plotted at 20 mm. Hg pressure intervals under trabecular smooth muscle relaxation. Cavernosal expandability, X, (the measure of the ability to achieve high corporal expansion at relatively low intracavernosal pressure) and tunical distensibility, V E/V F, (relative volume of fully erect to flaccid penis) were calculated. Erectile tissue was assessed by computer-assisted color histomorphometry with Masson's trichrome stained sections (30 to 45 high power fields/animal) to assess percentage of trabecular smooth muscle content. Results The overall mean percentage of trabecular smooth muscle content and mean cavernosal expandability values were 45.4 +/− 1.6, 39.2 +/− 0.9, 33.9 +/− 0.6 and 0.0165 +/− 3.04 × 10 −3, 0.0116 +/− 1.63 × 10 −3, 0.0118 +/− 1.26 × 10 −3 mm. Hg −1 for the control, hypercholesterolemic and atherosclerotic groups, respectively (r = 0.87). Significant differences in trabecular smooth muscle content were observed among all 3 groups, and in cavernosal expandability, between control and atherosclerotic groups, as well as between control and hypercholesterolemic groups but not between atherosclerotic and hypercholesterolemic groups. Conclusions The erectile tissue mechanical property, cavernosal expandability, correlated with erectile tissue structural quality. Since cavernosal histology has been shown to predict corporal veno-occlusive function, it is hypothesized that the measurement of cavernosal expandability may become a valuable functional clinical parameter in the diagnosis and treatment of men with erectile dysfunction.

Fibrin glue containing fibroblast growth factor type 1 and heparin decreases platelet deposition

The early success rates of endarterectomy and angioplasty are influenced by the thrombogenicity of the deendothelialized surface. We previously reported decreased platelet deposition after 30 and 120 minutes and after 28 days on expanded polytetrafluoroethylene (ePTFE) grafts coated with fibrin glue (FG) containing fibroblast growth factor type 1 (FGF-1) and heparin in canine aortoiliac bypass grafts when compared with control uncoated grafts. The FG/FGF-1/heparin coating has been shown to enhance spontaneous endothelialization at 28 days in canine ePTFE bypass grafts. The current study evaluates the thrombogenicity of this FG/FGF-1/heparin suspension applied to a balloon de-endothelialization model of endarterectomy in canine carotid arteries. Nine dogs underwent bilateral, deendothelialization balloon injury to 6-cm segments of their carotid arteries. Fibrin glue (fibrinogen 32.1 mg/mL + thrombin 0.32 U/mL) containing FGF-1 (11 ng/mL) and heparin (250 U/mL) was applied to the luminal surface of one carotid artery in each dog. Both femoral arteries were circumferentially dissected but not balloon injured; one femoral artery was clamped for the same period as the carotid arteries. In the 6 acute dogs, 10 minutes prior to the restitution of flow in both carotid arteries and one femoral artery, 4 to 8 x 10(9) (111)In-labelled autologous platelets were injected intravenously. Four-cm segments of both carotid and femoral arteries were excised after 15 or 120 minutes of circulation (n = 3/time/artery, 24 arteries). In the 3 chronic dogs, the radiolabelled platelets were injected 30 days after carotid injury. The carotid and femoral vessels were then excised after 120 minutes of perfusion. Radioactive platelet deposition was quantitated by gamma counting. After 2 hours, the injured carotid arteries demonstrated significantly more platelet deposition than either uninjured femoral artery controls (P < 0.001). There was also a significant 45.2% decrease (P = 0.008) in platelet deposition on the balloon injured carotid arteries treated with FG/FGF-1/heparin when compared with balloon injured carotid arteries alone. At 30 days there was an insignificant trend toward decreased thrombogenicity in the FG/FGF-1/heparin treated injured carotids. Surface coating with FG/FGF-1/heparin significantly decreases platelet deposition on balloon injured canine carotid arteries after 2 hours of perfusion and may be clinically applicable in endarterectomy and angioplasty procedures. The long-term induction of reendothelialization of arterial surfaces by this technique is under investigation.

Noninvasive Detection of Atherosclerotic Lesions by 99mTc-Based Immunoscintigraphic Targeting of Proliferating Smooth Muscle Cells

Mouse/human chimeric antibody Z2D3 identifies an antigen produced exclusively by proliferating smooth muscle cells of human atheroma, and also cross reacts with experimentally induced atherosclerotic lesions in rabbits. Fab' fragments of Z2D3 antibody were labeled with (99m)Tc using glucaric acid as a weak transchelator. The potential role of (99m)Tc-labeled Z2D3 scintigraphy was explored for noninvasive imaging of experimental atherosclerotic lesions. (99m)Tc-Z2D3 Fab' was utilized for noninvasive imaging in four rabbits with experimentally induced atherosclerotic lesions and in one control rabbit. In addition, (99m)Tc-labeled nonspecific 103D2 Fab' was used for comparison in four other rabbits with atherosclerotic lesions. The atherosclerotic lesions were induced by balloon de-endothelialization of the infradiaphragmatic abdominal aorta and 12 weeks of hyperlipidemic diet. An aliquot of 15 mCi (550 mBq) of (99m)Tc pertechnetate was incubated with 6.25 mg of glucaric acid for 30 min followed by incubation of (99m)Tc glucarate with 375 microg of Z2D3 Fab' or 103D2 Fab' for an additional 30 min. Instant thin-layer chromatography demonstrated almost complete radiolabeling. (99m)Tc-Z2D3 was administered IV and gamma imaging was performed at the time of injection, 3, 6, 9, and 12 h, followed by ex vivo imaging of the excised aorta, and biodistribution was performed. Unequivocal visualization of atherosclerotic lesions was possible in all four animals at 9 to 12 h with Z2D3 Fab'. Quantitative uptake, as represented by mean lesion-to-liver count density ratio, was 0.6+/-0.05. Imaging with nonspecific 103D2 Fab' did not show any localization in the abdominal aorta (lesion-to-liver ratio, 0.45+/-0.02, p=0.02). Ex vivo lesion-to-normal aortic segment ratio was 4.3+/-0.9 for Z2D3 and 1.04+/-0.08 for nonspecific 103D2 Fab' (p=0.01). Biodistribution studies demonstrated 0.03+/-0.003% injected Z2D3 dose per gram in the atherosclerotic lesions as compared with 0.01+/-0.003% in the nondenuded thoracic aorta of atherosclerotic rabbits (p=0.008). However, only 0.008+/-0.002% of the mean injected dose per gram was obtained in the atherosclerotic lesions (p=0.001) as compared with 0.005+/-0.003% in the normal aortic segments with 103D2. No Z2D3 uptake in normal rabbits was observed on either the in vivo or ex vivo images. The present study demonstrates that (99m)Tc-based immunoimaging of the vascular lesions may be feasible by the use of smaller antibody fragments. Earlier visualization is possible at the expense of a lower absolute antibody uptake in the lesions as compared to the use of intact antibody or larger fragments with longer circulating time.

Maximizing radiotracer delivery to experimental atherosclerotic lesions with high-dose, negative charge-modified Z2D3 antibody for immunoscintigraphic targeting

Background. Two factors that directly affect target/background ratio in immunoscintigraphy are the concentration of the antibody bound to the target and the concentration of the antibody in the circulation. High dosages of monoclonal antibody have been reported to be more efficacious in visualization of tumors. Although administration of a higher dosage of antibody increases the absolute target accumulation of the radiotracer, it also increases the background activity, which may offset this advantage. Negative charge-modified antibodies carry high specific radioactivity to the target sites without significantly increasing the background activity. Therefore we investigated whether higher dosages of negative charge-modified antibody can be used to improve imaging of experimental atherosclerotic lesions. Methods and Results. Experimental atherosclerotic lesions were produced in 16 New Zealand White rabbits by balloon deendothelialization of the infradiaphragmatic aorta and hyperlipidemic diet for 12 weeks. Negative charge-modified Z2D3 antibody F(ab′) 2 specific for an antigen on proliferating smooth muscle cells of human atheroma labeled with 111In was used for imaging experimental atherosclerotic lesions either at high (100 to 125 μg) or low (25 to 50 μg) dosages. A lower dosage of Z2D3 was labeled with 507 ± 29.5 μCi (25 to 50 μg) 111In label, compared with 2.9 ± 0.24 mCi (100 to 125 μg) for the higher dosage. Although noninvasive visualization of atherosclerotic lesions was possible in all animals at 24 hours, high antibody dose allowed unequivocal visualization of the lesion as early as 3 hours after intravenous administration of the antibody. Eight animals were killed at 24 hours and the remaining eight animals at 48 hours. Mean radioactivity dose delivered per gram of lesion with the low-dose protocol at 24 hours was 0.46 ± 0.09 μCi, which remained essentially unchanged at 48 hours (0.37 ± 0.09 μCi; p = 0.51). With the high-dosage protocol, the total radioactivity (dose) per gram uptake in the lesion increased by about eightfold (3.49 ± 0.58 μCi; p = 0.002) at 24 hours and was sixfold higher at 48 hours (2.21 ± 0.45 μCi; p < 0.02). Conclusions. The study demonstrated that the increase in the dosage of negatively charge-modified antibody allows a very high delivery of specific radioactivity to the target, which in turn enables early visualization of experimental atherosclerotic lesions.

Highly porous polymer matrices as a three-dimensional culture system for hepatocytes: Initial results

Background: The early success rates of endarterectomy and angioplasty are influenced by the thrombogenicity of the deendothelialized surface. We previously reported decreased platelet deposition after 30 and 120 minutes and after 28 days on expanded polytetrafluoroethylene (ePTFE) grafts coated with fibrin glue (FG) containing fibroblast growth factor type 1 (FGF-1) and heparin in canine aortoiliac bypass grafts when compared with control uncoated grafts. The FG/FGF-1/heparin coating has been shown to enhance spontaneous endothelialization at 28 days in canine e-PTFE bypass grafts. The current study evaluates the thrombogenicity of this FG/FGF-1/heparin suspension applied to a balloon de-endothelialization model of endarterectomy in canine carotid arteries.111In-labelled autologous platelets were injected intravenously. Four-cm segments of both carotid and femoral arteries were excised after 15 or 120 minutes of circulation (n = 3/time/artery, 24 arteries). In the 3 chronic dogs, the radiolabeled platelets were injected 30 days after carotid injury. The carotid and femoral vessels were then excised after 120 minutes of perfusion. Radioactive platelet deposition was quantitated by gamma counting.Results: After 2 hours, the injured carotid arteries demonstrated significantly more platelet deposition than either uninjured femoral artery controls (P < 0.001). There was also a significant 45.2% decrease (P = 0.008) in platelet deposition on the balloon injured carotid arteries treated with FG/FGF-1/heparin when compared with balloon injured carotid arteries alone. At 30 days there was an insignificant trend toward decreased thrombogenicity in the FG/FGF-1/heparin treated injured, carotids.Conclusion: Surface coating with FG/FGF-1/hep-arin significantly decreases platelet deposition on balloon injured canine carotid arteries after 2 hours of perfusion and may be clinically applicable in endarterectomy and angioplasty procedures. The long-term induction of reendothelialization of arterial surfaces by this technique is under investigation.

Gamma imaging of atherosclerotic lesions: The role of antibody affinity in in vivo target localization

Background. Monoclonal antibodies are attractive agents for noninvasive localization of various cardiovascular disorders. Because proliferating intimal smooth muscle cells are important components of atherosclerotic lesions, radiolabeled antibody Z2D3 specific for proliferating smooth muscle cells has been used for immunoscintigraphic localization of experimental atherosclerotic lesions. This study was undertaken to assess the role of antibody affinity in optimization of immunoscintigraphic localization of these lesions. Z2D3 belongs to the immunoglobulin (Ig) M class of antibodies. For immunoscintigraphic studies, attempts were made to prepare F(ab′) 2 or Fab fragments from the parent cell line. Fragmentation of Z2D3-IgM or its two subclones (B7 and 2B12) was not possible; therefore the parent hybridoma line was subjected to class switching. Cell lines 5C5 and 3E5 secreted antibody of the IgG 1 subclass. The Z2D3-IgG 1 antibodies were enzymatically digested to provide F(ab′) 2. Because of a tenfold loss of immunoreactivity of these class-switched antibodies, the parent clone was subsequently genetically engineered to obtain a mouse/human chimeric antibody with human IgG 1 constant region. F(ab′) 2 of Z2D3-73.30 chimeric antibody retained the immunoreactivity relative to the original Z2D3-IgM. Radiolabeled murine and chimeric F(ab′) 2 fragments were used to assess the role of affinity in gamma scintigraphic visualization of experimental atherosclerotic lesions. Methods and Results. Experimental atherosclerotic lesions were induced in 19 rabbits by abdominal aortic balloon deendothelialization followed by a hyperlipidemic diet for 12 weeks. 111In-labeled chimeric high-affinity Z2D3 F(ab′) 2 fragments ( 111In-Hi.aff Z2D3) were administered in four animals. Uptake was compared with 111In-labeled F(ab′) 2 of nonspecific human IgG 1 ( n = 4), murine low-affinity Z2D3-5C5 ( 111In-Lo.aff Z2D3; n = 4), nonspecific murine IgG 1 monoclonal antibodies ( n = 4), and 123I-labeled murine low-affinity Z2D3-3E5 ( n = 3). Atherosclerotic lesions were visualized 48 hours after administration of the chimeric Hi.aff-Z2D3 antibody in all animals. Lesions were not visualized in rabbits injected with Lo.aff-Z2D3 or murine or human nonspecific antibodies. Mean percent injected dose per gram in the lesion was significantly higher with the 111In-Hi.aff-Z2D3 (0.112% ± 0.024%) compared with 111In-Lo.aff-Z2D3 (0.037% ± 0.005%; p = 0.03), human nonspecific (0.027% ± 0.004%; p = 0.01), or murine nonspecific antibodies (0.006% ± 0.001%; p = 0.0004). Nonspecific activity in unballooned thoracic aortic segments (normal) was comparable in the 111In-Hi.aff-Z2D3 (0.019 ± 0.003) and the 111In-Lo.aff-Z2D3 (0.011% ± 0.005%; p = 0.3) antibodies. The lesion activities of the Lo.aff-Z2D3 labeled with 111In (0.037 ± 0.005) or 123I (0.034 ± 0.007; p = 0.71) were similar regardless of the radioisotopes used for labeling. Conclusions. Our study demonstrates that the specificity of an antibody for the target antigen in the atheroma is a necessary condition for in vivo targeting. However, high enough affinity of an antibody is an essential component for noninvasive diagnostic visualization of experimental atherosclerotic lesions.

Localization of [ 125I]endothelin-1 in injured aorta of rabbits

Endothelin-1 is a potent vasoconstrictor. This study was performed to determine whether arterial injury, induced by either hypercholesterolemia or mechanical disruption of the endothelium, is associated with increased localization of endothelin-1 in the artery. The blood clearance and tissue distribution of intravenously injected [ 125I]endothelin-1 was evaluated in 33 rabbits - control animals ( n = 7), balloon de-endothelialized animals ( n = 12), cholesterol -fed animals ( n = 6) and animals that had both balloon de-endothelialization and high cholesterol diet ( n = 8). The blood clearance half time was less than 20 min, with slightly slower clearance in the ballooned/cholesterol-fed animals. [ 125I]Endothelin-1 localized in the lung (∼ 12% injected dose (ID)/organ) and kidney (∼ 8%ID/organ). [ 125I]Endothelin-1 localized in the lung (∼ 12% injected dose of 0.06%kgID/g to its highest level within 5 min of balloon de-endotheliazation (0.2%kgID/g) and decreased to 0.11%kgID/g within one week and remained essentially unchanged through 16 weeks. The area with increased binding of [ 125I]endothelin-1 corresponded to the zone of arterial injury stained with Evans blue. On the other hand, the binding in the aorta did not increase with the atherogenic diet. These findings suggest that endothelin-1 accumulates in injured vessels, attaining the highest levels immediately after mechanical injury.

Localization of [I]endothelin-1 in injured aorta of rabbits

Endothelin-1 is a potent vasoconstrictor. This study was performed to determine whether arterial injury, induced by either hypercholesterolemia or mechanical disruption of the endothelium, is associated with increased localization of endothelin-1 in the artery. The blood clearance and tissue distribution of intravenously injected [ 125 I]endothelin-1 was evaluated in 33 rabbits - control animals ( n = 7), balloon de-endothelialized animals ( n = 12), cholesterol -fed animals ( n = 6) and animals that had both balloon de-endothelialization and high cholesterol diet ( n = 8). The blood clearance half time was less than 20 min, with slightly slower clearance in the ballooned/cholesterol-fed animals. [ 125 I]Endothelin-1 localized in the lung (∼ 12% injected dose (ID)/organ) and kidney (∼ 8%ID/organ). [ 125 I]Endothelin-1 localized in the lung (∼ 12% injected dose of 0.06%kgID/g to its highest level within 5 min of balloon de-endotheliazation (0.2%kgID/g) and decreased to 0.11%kgID/g within one week and remained essentially unchanged through 16 weeks. The area with increased binding of [ 125 I]endothelin-1 corresponded to the zone of arterial injury stained with Evans blue. On the other hand, the binding in the aorta did not increase with the atherogenic diet. These findings suggest that endothelin-1 accumulates in injured vessels, attaining the highest levels immediately after mechanical injury.