Balkan Territories Research Articles

Entrepreneurial Climate – Management of Women's Entrepreneurship

Entrepreneurship, which people can have without formal economic education, is a tendency acquired through upbringing in the family, competition in school, implies risk and constant self-affirmation through the acquisition of profits and losses, so that it represents the sum of successes and failures, victory and defeat. In the last thirty years, female entrepreneurship has been developing more and more, especially in less developed countries, the reason for such growth is primarily reflected in the promotion of equality between men and women, the right to education, and the development of democracy. Female entrepreneurship is a significant factor in economic development, so the national economy becomes richer. The subject of this research are the entrepreneurial climate in the Balkans compared to the world in terms of female entrepreneurship, what is the role of the family in starting a small business, as well as its survival and growth. In the study the results of previous research in this area. The research method is based on a comparative analysis of studies dealing with this problem from the territory of Balkans. It can be concluded that in the Balkans, female entrepreneurship is still in its infancy, it is about a very small percentage of female entrepreneurs, although according to research, it is evident that there has been no major progress in the last 15 years. Recommendation In the countries of the Balkans, there is a good entrepreneurial climate for the development of female entrepreneurship, especially because women can work from home, and in the future it is necessary to go in this direction.

Prisutnost rimskih vojnih jedinica na teritoriju provincije Dalmacije / The presence of Roman military units on the territory of the province of Dalmatia

After the final incorporation of the territory of Western Balkans in the Roman Empire, the only force that could’ve pacified Illyrian communities was the Roman army. Keeping that in mind, the Romans stationed military legions and auxiliary troops in the province of Dalmatia. The most significant, but also the most attested was the military presence of two legions: legio VII Claudia pia fidelis and legio XI Claudia pia fidelis. Besides them, in the province of Dalmatia, the presence of many other legions and a large number of auxiliary troops is confirmed. The responsibility for the safety of the province was in the hands of consular beneficiaries, as well. This paper encompasses an overview of the presence of Roman military units on the territory of the province of Dalmatia, as well as conclusions about their role in the process of pacification of the Illyrian territory and the establishment of the Roman provincial system.

Gazi Husrev-beg u kontroverznim historiografskim perspektivama

While former Yugoslav historiography had a kind of schedule of scientific research centers (Zagreb for Latin work, Sarajevo for work in Turkish, and Belgrade for work on Visant sources) the end of the 20th century developed new national historiographies that approach the history of the Ottoman period from its point of view. Since this period constitutes a common past of the people of large part of the Balkans, today we can analyze how and what extent regional historiographies explore common historical figures and events. Although historiography can be followed by Gazi Husrev-bey's life and military journey through the Balkan territories, the perception of his character and work remained within the margins of the basic facts of the historical reality of the 16th century. Given the areas where the mention of Gazi Husrev's name and works remained widely present, the research corps on this topic is diverse, but in the foreground based on samples of archival material and representative units of domestic and foreign historiographic literature. The basic thesis I would like to present is that even the most established facts of the past cannot avoid contradictions and debatable interpretations, largely dependent on the point of view or focus shaped by stereotypes, exclusive hypotheses through the paradigm of social awareness as well as the interests of time and politics in some historiographic circles. Through sel examples of research approaches, it can be noted that they are related to the lack of involvement of scientists in incorporating research results into the education system. In addition, the Bologna system has narrowed research topics and they are mainly related to today's borders of Bosnia and Herzegovina. This is absurd for the processing of the Ottoman period of the Bosnian Ayalat, which formed one of the administrative units of the Ottoman State. Changes to the borders with the collapse of the Ottoman state have left a large part of the Bosnian people in other Balkan areas. Their collective memory and attitude towards historical figures are mostly about folk songs, while the research of historical facts on the same topics is left to national historiographies that still retain antagonistic attitude towards the Other. This is best seen through the revitalization of theories about the „dark Turkish times“ and „haters of Christianity“. Due to numerous gaps in knowledge and material traces of the past, younger generations of researchers in the neighborhood, however, are asking logical questions such as: Why renounce the Ottoman heritage because of the collective aversion to the State which once they were part of. This presentation is just a small example of these common historiographical wanderings. According to what has been researched and known about the character and work of Gazi Husrev-bey, this historical personality can be a pattern of local and regional research tendencies. Persistence in such approaches seriously calls into question the responsibility of historians. Bosnia and Herzegovina's experience of a historiographical approach to the topic of famous personalities and events is increasingly indicating self-isolationism.

Greco-Serbian Treaty of 1867 and the role of Russian diplomacy

The Greco-Serbian Treaty of 1867 is the second attempt to create a military coalition of Christian states in the Balkans, aimed at fighting a common enemy ‒ the Ottoman Empire. The agreement reflected the irredentist policy of the two states in solving the Eastern question, the purpose of which was to expel the Turks from the European continent and prevent the seizure of the Balkan territories by the Great Powers.Russia closely followed and moreover, actively influenced the negotiation process, which revealed a serious conflict of interests around the issue of border delimitation in Macedonia.The study highlights three key issues. The first concerns Russia's position on the provisions of the Greco-Serbian Treaty affecting Russian interests. The second has to do with the details of the negotiation process related to the future territorial division of the European territories of the Ottoman Empire and in particular Macedonia and the Bulgarian population living in the northern part of this territory. The third is devoted to the examination of the intermediary role of Russian diplomats.

The importance of sociodemographic characteristics of psychotherapy patients in institutional conditions on the Balkan territory.

The effects of psychotherapy are proven, compelling and far-reaching. The aim was to evaluate sociodemographic characteristics and clinical diagnosis of psychotherapeutic patients who were treated at the Institute of Mental Health in Belgrade. Retrospective clinical study was composed of 334 patients. Patients data related to the gender, age, education, employment, marital status and clinical diagnose were processed by descriptive statistics methods and chi-square test. Psychotherapy services were mostly used by female patients (64.1%), aged 30 to 39 years, majority finished secondary school (47.6%) and were employed (54.8%). Half of the patients were single (49.7%) with unipolar depressive non-psychotic disorder (60.5%). The research of this kind and with this volume of patients, coming from institutional conditions, has never been done among Balkan nationalities and thus represent encouragement for future studies.

Jontürk Devrimi Ve Ferizaj 1908 Meclisi

Although 1908 was a historic event, also it was special to the Albanian people. Albanians have never stopped their efforts for the freedom and independence of Albania. After the large loss of the Balkan territory, the Ottoman Empire gradually began to lose its influence over Albanian lands. The Albanians made efforts for national unity in order to be united in the face of the political and military circumstances that awaited them in the wake of the flood of rule by AbdylHamiti II. Among the traces of events in history is undoubtedly the Assembly of Ferizaj1908, which was organized by Albanians to oppose Ottoman reforms, and in particular the Austro-Hungarian concession to build a railway linking Sarajevo with Thessaloniki through Kosovo and Skopje. This event did not pass easily, influenced also by the Young Turk movement and the influence of the unhappy crowd, in order to benefit from this political measure, the Yong Turkeasily won the sympathy of the Albanian people. The Young Turks managed to turn the national war scenes into a peace center in the Balkans under the umbrella of the July 1908 Revolution, the Young Turks committees acted in Resen, Ohrid, Prespa, Skopje, Mitrovica, Ferizaj, Prizren etc. these were Albanians who had indirect links with the Albanian Committee “For the Freedom of Albania”. In the "Union and Progress" committee were Albanian patriots such as: Ibrahim Temo, Ismail Qemali, Dervish Hima, Hoxha Kadri Prishtina etc. Although Albanians support the Young Turk movement, they remain betrayed because, after the Young Turks came to power, they did not live up to their promises, but they did even worse than the previous power over the Albanians by imposing new taxes that were extremely impoverished Albanians, already economically devastated. Due to the inability to afford these high taxes they had to protest to oppose the purpose of the Young Turk power in the Albanian areas. The Secret Committee for the Freedom of Albania, which operated from 1905-1908, played a key role in this regard. It is worth noting that during 1908 the largest inter-Albanian rally was organized in Ferizaj.

LES IDÉES DE LA RÉVOLUTION FRANÇAISE DANS L’OEUVRE POLITIQUE ET LITTÉRAIRE DE RHIGAS VELESTINLIS (1757–1798)

IDEALS OF FRENCH REVOLUTION IN A POLITICAL AND LITERARY PIECE OF RIGAS VELESTINLIS (1757–1798) This paper aims at enlightening the importance of French revolution regarding Rigas Velestinlis, who was one of the most influential figures of the Hellenistic and Balkan territories at the end of XVIII century, bearer of The Age of Enlightenment ideas, politician, patriot, and a visionare of a republican and democratic alliance. His opus consists of a literary-translative piece, and notable political-revolutionary writings: Revolutionary proclamation, Declaration of human rights, Constitution, and Turios. All the authors who participated in the creation of Rigas Velestinlis point out his role/destiny of a forerunner in all areas. Key words: French revolution, Age of Enlightenment, Rigas Velestinlis, forerunner, freedom fighter, Hellenistic/Balkan territories

The Balkan Wars: An Expected Opportunity for Ethnic Cleansing

The Balkan states in 1912 created a system of alliances ultimately aimed at the expulsion of the Ottoman Empire from the Balkan territory and from Europe. The changes that happened during the Balkan wars in the Macedonian territory were far-reaching. Balkan Muslims largely left the areas that they had settled for centuries. The Christian population that was part of the Ottoman Empire before the wars, having certain rights and customs and a large amount of problems (lingering Ottoman feudalism, the non-existence of security, be it from the Komitadji groups of the neighboring countries, or from the vengeful Turkish persecutions), had hoped for the war to bring liberation and better life conditions. The initial enthusiasm was very quickly replaced by the fight for mere survival as well as the loss of rights and customs that the “millet” system has continuously nurtured under the Ottoman Empire. The “liberators” were often wrong (the others), which led to large migrations among the Christian population of the Balkan states. The ethnic image of the Balkans changed completely and those who remained in their homes and survived the war most often did not have any minority rights and were subjected to assimilation. The situation was most drastic in Aegean Macedonia, which in a little more than a decade changed from multinational environment to an area almost completely inhabited by the Greeks.

Education, Authoritarianism, and Party Preference in the Balkans

This article examines the thesis that educational cleavage, operating through an authoritarian–libertarian value dimension, has become one of the most important social cleavages that influence political divisions in contemporary Europe. This model, which is a revision of the standard cleavage model of politics, has been developed and tested in the Western European context. However, the validity of this assumption in different social contexts, such as the Eastern European and the post-communist, has not been tested yet. This article uses data from the fourth wave of the European Values Survey to test the idea that the authoritarian–liberal dimension mediates the influence of education on party orientation in seven Balkan countries and territories. The results show that education and authoritarianism are significantly and negatively correlated in each Balkan country. Yet, there are differences in their political relevance that are dependent on the behavior of the parties themselves and possibly the presence of other major cleavages.

O ustanovi vakufa i vakufskim dobrima u Kneževini Srbiji 1830-1878 - pravno-istorijski okvir

Institution of waqf in the Ottoman Empire was founded on the Balkan territories just after being conquered. Built on a waqf land, in accordance with Sharia Law, waqfs enjoyed special treatment. Waqfs immovable and movable property changed its status during their existence, but in a period of the Kingdom of Serbia, legal relations between waqfs and Serbian authorities became complicated, so it lasted until the Law of Islamic Community of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia was issued in 1930. We can say that the history of waqfs in the Principality of Serbia followed the destiny of Muslim population in accordance with historical and legal changes in Ottoman Empire, having in mind Hattisherif of Gulhane being proclaimed, 1839, so struggle for national liberation from Ottomans started in the Balkan Peninsula. This work includes research about history of the institution of waqf and status of it in the Principality of Serbia 1830-1878 during the period of Ottoman Empire power stagnation.

Beyond the Borders: The Significance of Frontiers between Central Balkans’ Roman Provinces in the Context of Roman Art

Roman conquest in the 1st century, upon which tribal communities were organized into administrative units. The fact that the boundaries of pre-Romantribal territories didn’t correspond in total with the areas of the newly formed Roman provinces, led to frequent influences from neighbouring provinces and the blending of Roman art with local traits in the artistic sphere. Although in the 1st century different types of sculpture (cult, monumental and honorary) were present, throughout the whole period of the Roman reign cult sculptures and statues were the most numerous. Tracing the development of the art in the territory of Central Balkans’ Roman provinces, it is clear that the northern parts were more under the Roman influence as the consequence of indigenous population more readily adapting to the process of Romanisation, while the southern parts of the Central Balkans area were more influenced by the Greek culture with which they were in contact from as early as the middle of the 7th century B.C. Sculptures, statues and reliefs were modelled upon Roman art canons, copying classical Greek and Hellenistic art, in bigger centres like Ratiaria, Singidunum, Viminacium, Naissus, Scupi etc. and localities along the Danube limes. At the same time, in the interior of the Central Balkans’ provinces, works of art were manufactured upon Roman canons but with local traits. These were mainly recognized in the simplicity, frontality and linearity of the art works. This is particularly visible in the western and south-western parts of the aforementioned territory, as in some of the localities in eastern parts of the area. During the 2nd and the 3rd centuries, beside skilful artisans from Greece, Asia Minor and the Mediterranean, who came and worked in bigger centres, local workshops also produced different kinds of artworks, copying Roman types in a more or less successful way. During the 3rd century particularly, different cultural and artistic influences met and blended, often transcending the administrative borders of the provinces, thus the forthcoming iconographic syncretism was present in the 4th century as well. From the end of the 3rd and during the 4th century, rich aristocrats,local elite and emperors ordered high quality works for decorating their estates and villas, following aesthetic criteria established in other eastern and western provinces. In the art works from that period, beside certain schematism and linearity in the modelling, a blending of similar iconographic details is emphasizedas the presence of local artistic traits. Therefore, the continuance of manufacturing of the sculpture by copying classical Greek works of art and of the locally produced works of art with traits of indigenous material cultures is present until the end of the Roman reign.

Asparuh and His People on the Lower Danube through the Eyes of Theophanes, or a Story that Was Not Meant to Happen

The Bulgarians’ settlement in the Lower Danube area constituted one of the most significant events in the history of the Balkan Peninsula in the Middle Ages. The Danube Bulgaria’s rise and its territorial expansion changed the political situation in this area. The Bulgarians became Byzantium’s chief opponents in the struggle for establishing ascendancy over the Balkan Peninsula. The analysis of Theophanes’ Chronography, which remains, in addition to the account by Patriarch Nicephorus, the main source of information about these events supports the conclusion that this Byzantine author took a very negative view of the effects of the arrival of these nomads in the former Byzantine territories. Although this account has been analysed in detail by a number of scholars, these authors have paid no attention to the key role of the tale of Khan Kubrat and the disobedience of his five sons who failed to remain faithful to his last wish. The significance of the personal experiences of Theophanes, who witnessed the Bulgarian expansion during the era of Khan Krum, is also omitted from today’s discussion of these issues. These experiences contributed to the way in which he viewed the migration of the ancestors of the distinguished Bulgarian ruler. The chronicler may thus be considered to have offered a very clear view of what the readers should think of the Bulgarians’ arrival in the Balkan territories.

Italy’s fascist past: A difficult reckoning

ITALY’S FASCIST PAST: A DIFFICULT RECKONINGIn January 2002, a survey conducted by a popular television program revealed that 25 percent of young Italians held a favorable opinion of Fascism and Dictator Benito Mussolini. Shortly thereafter, Italy’s most prominent scholar of Fascism, Emilio Gentile, warned of a “retroactive de-fascistization” in Italian society: the widespread tendency to cast fascism in a benevolent light forgetting, or softening, its repressive and brutal features. For many Italians, Fascism was very diff erent from Nazism and Communist Totalitarianism — it might have been an authoritarian regime but it was not a bloody one. This assessment was no doubt further conditioned by the politics of memory promoted at that time by Silvio Berlusconi’s center-right government. However the origins of this watered-down interpretation go back much further. The idea that Italian Fascism was not on a par with other totalitarian regimes took root in the collective conscience following the end of World War II, as Italy attempted to rehabilitate its reputation in the eyes of the world, hoping to be spared harsh judgment and punishment on the international stage. Its cornerstone was the contrast between Italian Fascism and German National Socialism. On one side, the brutality and ideological fanaticism of the Nazis and on the other, the Italian Fascists, who according to the narrative were over-bearing but not so criminal This distinction between Fascism and Nazism has permeated Italian public opinion throughout the history of the Italian Republic. It was shared by historian Renzo De Felice and pervasive from the 1980s onward in mass media which were inspired by the new wave of revisionism.Over the last twenty years, the ‘dark pages’ of Italian Fascism — from the regime’s anti-Semitic policies to crimes committed in the colonies and Balkan territories occupied during the Second World War — have been thoroughly investigated in the historiography. Broad sectors of the public still however consider Fascism a mild dictatorship not without its merits. The country that invented Fascism, therefore, is still struggling to come to terms with the legacy of its Fascist past.

Probleme de datare a armelor balcanice din sec. XVIII-XIX aflate pe teritoriul actual al Romaniei / Issues Relating to the Dating of the Balkan Arms from the 18th–19th Centuries on the Current Territory of Romania

Probleme de datare a armelor balcanice din sec. XVIII-XIX aflate pe teritoriul actual al Romaniei / Issues Relating to the Dating of the Balkan Arms from the 18th–19th Centuries on the Current Territory of Romania

Utjecaj podizanja trajnih naselja i uzgoja žitarica na razvoj putnih komunikacija / The impact of permanent settlements and grain cultivation on the development of road communications

The transformation of hunter-gatherer society, who lived as nomads for a very long time, largely influenced the development of road communication. These communities now established permanent settlements, especially in arable lands, and had a somewhat lifestyle than before. The cultivation of grains and domestication of animals meant that people had no more need for migration and the search for better locations, instead they started setting up their homes in the proximity to other community members, thereby forming the first Neolithic settlements. By forming the settlements appeared the need to establish a communication with other communities in the territory of present-day Balkans and wider, usually for the purpose of trade of certain goods, which had a direct impact on the road communication development that laid foundations for the development of the roads in the Roman period. Several such settlements are known in the territory of present-day Bosnia that maintained continuity and tradition as well as road communications from the Neolithic period up to the Roman period, i.e. Roman governor Publius Cornelius Dolabella, under whose governorship the widest road communication network was built in the territory of the province of Dalmatia.

Proces tworzenia Królestwa SHS wobec przeobrażeń Wielkiej Wojny (1914–1918)

The article „The process of creation of the Kingdom of SHS in view of the transformations of the Great War (1914–1918)” provides an overview of the defining events related to the creation of the first Yugoslav state; that is the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes established on 1st December 1918. The discussions included in the article were focused primarily on the circumstances of the complicated process of negotiations between the representatives of the South-Slavic nations, which expressed different visions in the context of the creation of a common state. An issue further hindering the unification of the South Slavs was the transformations of the Great War and the associated frequent changes in the political situation of the Balkan states and territories, as well as the formation of different centres representing the interests of the South-Slavic nations. The discussions were based on Balkan archives previously unused in Polish literature; collections of documents and press sources (mostly from 1918); as well as on the most important studies of Balkan, Polish, and other authors.

Pan Kubrat i jego pięciu synów. Teofanesa wizja przybycia Bułgarów na Półwysep Bałkański

The Bulgarians’ settlement in the Lower Danube area constituted one of the most significant events in the history of the Balkan Peninsula in the Middle Ages. The Danube Bulgaria’s rise and its territorial expansion changed the political situation in this area. The Bulgarians became Byzantium’s chief opponents in the struggle for establishing ascendancy over the Balkan Peninsula. The analysis of Theophanes’ Chronography, which remains, in addition to the account by Patriarch Nikephoros, the main source of information about these events supports the conclusion that this Byzantine author took a very negative view of the effects of the arrival of these nomads in the former Byzantine territories. Although this account has been analysed in detail by a number of scholars, these authors have paid no attention to the key role of the tale of Khan Kubrat and the disobedience of his five sons who failed to remain faithful to his last wish. The significance of the personal experiences of Theophanes, who witnessed the Bulgarian expansion during the era of Khan Krum, is also omitted from today’s discussion of these issues. These experiences contributed to the way in which he viewed the migration of the ancestors of the distinguished Bulgarian ruler. The chronicler may thus be considered to have offered a very clear view of what the readers should think of the Bulgarians’ arrival in the Balkan territories.

Arms Smuggling across Ottoman Borders in the Second Half of the 19th Century

In the second half of the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire was weak and was struggling with the problem of arms smuggling across its borders. This was especially the case in the late 1890s and early 1900s when the Ottoman Empire was under considerable external and internal pressure in its Balkan, Arab and African territories. This paper critically examines the arms smuggling problems of the Ottoman Empire in this period, primarily using Ottoman archival documents. The paper will consider the internal and external motives behind arms smuggling and its impact on the Empire. It will also analyse how the Ottoman authorities dealt with the problem of local powers gaining arms to use against local enemies and to fight for independence from the Empire. Although Western governments prohibited arms smuggling, arms were being transported from Western countries to the Ottoman border. While one reason for the arms smuggling was that it was a lucrative business, another important reason for the illicit trade was the rise of nationalist movements that sought to cut their ties with the Empire.

El conflicto de Kosovo en la prensa española: del interés al olvido.

Currently, the Spanish press has forgotten Kosovo, despite being a conflict to which it paid great attention during the war of 1999 and beyond. Nowadays, in most cases, it only reports about this small Balkan territory due to the fact that its proclamation of independence, carried out in 2008, appears cyclically related to the debate on secession of Catalonia.

Władza turecka i strategie jej opisu w piśmiennictwie staroserbskim (na przykładzie krótkich form literackich – zapisów)

In the article, a problem of conceiving and depicting the Turkish rule is taken into account, for my reflections concentrate on the patterns of presentation regarding the Ottoman Turks’ invasion of the Balkan territory, and their oppressive rule in the Balkans. The patterns mentioned above, present in the Old Serbian literature, were to commemorate all those tragic events. In the Old Serbian texts (pertaining to hagiography, historiography, hymnic literature, and also to the brief literary forms – notations), the Turkish rule was expressed in explicitly negative categories of illegality, violence, and godlessness, presented in the context of the “end of times”, the Christian community’s martyrdom, mentioned in the eschatological perspective of the definition of history and exegesis, the perspective so characteristic for the Middle Ages.