Balancing Ecosystem Services Research Articles

Assessment of herbaceous community structure for identifying metal-tolerant species at different land uses in and around Varanasi city.

Plant community structure under different land uses provides an important understanding of vegetation dynamics to safeguard future restoration programmes and balance ecosystem services. Therefore, this study was carried out to estimate the alterations in soil properties and contamination by potentially toxic metals at different land uses (industrial, brick kiln, highway, and residential areas) compared to the reference (botanical garden area) site coupled with their subsequent influence on herbaceous community structure, bioconcentration, translocation, and extraction amountof metals in different plant species. Most of the total and phytoavailable metals (Co, Cr, Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb, Mn, and Zn) were higher at the contaminated sites compared to the reference site. The number of herbaceous species was highest at the reference site and minimum at the industrial site. Dominant and tolerant species were Cyanodon dactylon, Croton bonaplandianus, Achyranthus aspera, Malvestrum coromendelianum, Dicanthium annulatum, Nicotiana hindostana, Sporobolus virginicus, and Parthenium hysterophorus, found at the industrial, brick kiln, and highway sites. Based on transfer coefficients, C. bonaplandianus, D. annulatum, and Eleusine indica were recognized as potential accumulators, whereas C. dactylon, Commelina benghalensis, A. aspera, Amaranthus sessilis, and M. coromendelianum were found as excluder species for different metals. The identified tolerant herbaceous species could be used for future phytoremediation strategies and the prevention of hazardous risks to living components of contaminated sites.

Valuing the functionality of tropical ecosystems beyond carbon

Land-based carbon sequestration projects, such as tree planting, are a prominent strategy to offset carbon emissions. However, we risk reducing natural ecosystems to one metric – carbon. Emphasis on restoring ecosystems to balance ecosystem services, biodiversity conservation, and carbon sequestration is a more appropriate strategy to protect their functioning.

Assessing Trade-Offs between Agricultural Productivity and Ecosystem Functions: A Review of Science-Based Tools?

Global population growth, especially in developing countries, will most likely require an increase in agricultural production, but the sustainability of this production cannot be achieved without the preservation of ecosystem functions. Therefore, farmers need to know about, and deal with, the trade-offs between agricultural productivity and ecosystem functions and services. This review aims to assess practical science-based tools that can be used to make decisions for sustainable agricultural production. We reviewed 184 articles and divided them into categories depending on whether they describe tools, practices, ecosystem services, models, or other topics. Although many studies were global in scope, the approach to analyzing and assessing trade-offs appears to vary geographically. The review showed that trade-offs between agricultural productivity and ecosystem functions are most commonly studied in Europe and Asia, while few studies have been conducted in sub-Saharan Africa. Most tools in the review addressed only one or a bundle of ecosystem services, related to water, biodiversity, or climate regulation, and were designed for different types of land use and ecosystems and applicable at different scales. More practical tools for trade-off analysis have mainly been developed and applied by development organizations with support from science. Closer collaboration between practitioners, development organizations, and scientists is suggested to foster co-development of tools useful for identifying sustainable strategies for closing the yield gap, increasing productivity and for balancing ecosystem services, building on the Sustainable Development Goal’s framework and its targets for agricultural productivity and ecosystem services for trade-off analysis. We recommend the development and fine-tuning of the identified tools to specific contexts and landscapes through innovation platforms bringing together farmers, extension workers, scientists, and local decision-makers.

Ecological network design based on optimizing ecosystem services:case study in the Huang-Huai-Hai region, China

In modern agricultural landscapes, constructing ‘ecological networks’ is regarded as an efficient way to conserve biodiversity and maintain ecosystem services. Here we aimed to develop an approach to design ecological corridor by employing the ecological source - resistance surface - ecological corridor framework in combination with semi-natural habitat planning and ecosystem service trade-off assessment. ‘Ecological source patches’ were identified based on a ‘Remote Sensing Ecological Index’ (RSEI) to objectively classify ecological and environmental conditions. Our resulting spatial resistance surface was further modified used based on the ‘Cultivated Land Use Intensity’ index, to derive a high accuracy and rationality of ecological corridor extraction in agriculture landscape. While planning the ecological network, key nodes and resulting semi-natural habitat (SNH) distribution were identified using Linkage Mapper tools and circuit theory. We constructed ecological network scenarios with different amounts of semi-natural habitats and calculated resulting regional ecosystem service values (ESV) using an equivalence factor method to explore optimal spatial layouts. The results showed, while regional ecosystem service values generally increased in line with semi-natural habitat area contained within the ecological network, ecological networks with forests covering 10% of the total area were predicted as an optimal scenario balancing ecosystem services with agricultural yield in the study region. Networks with mixed forest and grassland cover totaling 20% of the area represented an alternative choice that strongly enhanced regional ecosystem services while may still allowing for high agricultural productivity. In constructing corridors, identifying, restoring and protecting key ecological nodes using targeted management and habitat restoration, while protecting existing wetlands and other water bodies that support regional water cycle and supply services, should be prioritized. Regional policy measures furthermore need to promote targeted ecological network planning to help improve the overall sustainability of agricultural production.

Lahaul-Zanskar-Sham Valley Corridor in Indian Trans Himalayan Region Facilitates Dispersal and Gene Flow in Himalayan Ibex.

Wildlife corridors that connect mosaic habitats in heterogeneous mountainous landscapes can be of high significance as they facilitate the genetic and demographic stability of free-ranging populations. Peripheral populations of widespread species are usually ignored in conservation planning. However, these populations retain locally common alleles and are genetic reservoir under the changing climatic conditions. Capra sibirica has widespread distribution, and its southern peripheral population is distributed in the Indian trans-Himalayan region (ITR). In the present study, we studied the spatial distribution and genetic make-up of Himalayan ibex from the ITR following the landscape genetics approach. We obtained 16 haplotypes at the mitochondrial d-loop region and found a stable demography in the past with a recent decline. With 10 nuclear microsatellites, we ascertained 111 unique individuals assigned into two clusters following Bayesian and non-Bayesian clustering analysis with several admixed individuals. We also recorded 25 first-generation migrants that reflected relatively high dispersal and gene-flow across the range. We identified a 19,835 sq.km suitable area with 13,311 sq.km in Ladakh and 6524 sq.km in Lahaul-Spiti. We identified a novel movement corridor for Himalayan ibex across the Lahaul-Zanskar-Sham valley (L-Z-SV) that displayed a fairly good conductance with low genetic divergence among the samples collected on the L-Z-SV corridor. We propose declaring a protected area in the Lahaul and Kargil districts to prioritize dedicated conservation efforts for the Himalayan ibex and other sympatric ungulates that impart a major role in the diet of large carnivore and balancing ecosystem services in the trans-Himalayan region.

Considering counterfactual scenarios in conservation planning: Perspectives from a biodiverse mining area in the Atlantic Forest

Mining and associated infrastructure have been driving land use changes, affecting important biodiversity values and ecosystems services. To balance these impacts, some mining companies implement biodiversity offsets and conservation actions. By simulating a counterfactual land use scenario, this study quantifies the cumulative impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem services resulting from land use and land cover change in a biodiverse region in the Atlantic Forest after implementation of a new mine and its offsets. Our results show that conservation actions at the project scale should be planned considering the regional context, which may influence impacts on areas with high conservation priority as well as the ecosystem services budget. The comparison among scenarios reveals that raw materials and carbon storage are the least affected budgets, while fresh water, pollination, and local climate and air quality regulation are most impacted. Areas with high conservation priority could be benefited with increased forest cover in future, whilst the demand for some ecosystem services can be affected. Counterfactual baselines could support conservation targets by prioritizing protection and restoration measures – especially offset planning – for halting pressures on biodiversity and balancing ecosystem services supply and demand.

Which pro-environmental farming behaviors should be priorities for funding? An approach based on matching ecosystem services (ESs) demand and supply

Eco-compensation (EC) for farmland conservation being implemented in China is a type of payments for ecosystem services (PES) scheme that seeks to balance ecosystem services (ESs) consumption and supply. Despite the growing body of literature on the integration of the demand for, and supply of ESs or the identification of mismatches between them, still many challenges remain to structurally integrate them in policy making facing fund-saving. Therefore, integrating ESs demand and supply at the micro-scale to provide novel insights into using compensation funds efficiently and optimizing the design of PES schemes deserves increasing attention. This study investigated an approach for integrating the demand for, and supply of farmland ESs, i.e., the public's preferences and farmers' pro-environmental behaviors related to farmland ESs, into the design of differentiated EC policies to obtain more ESs with lower input of EC funds. It proposed a theoretical framework and research approach to identify the pro-environmental farming behaviors that should be funded as priorities by matching micro farmland ES demand and supply in multiple scenarios. Then, using survey data collected from four cities in Hubei Province, China, and expert consultation data, empirical research was conducted. By matching the 'key ESs' on the demand side and 'specific ESs' on the supply side in scenarios I, II and III, eight most critical pro-environmental farming behaviors that should be funded as priorities for each scenario were identified. We maintain that the efficient and targeted use of EC funds can be better determined by matching ESs demand and supply from a micro-perspective since this approach provides insight and a framework to identify priorities for action. This approach could be extended to the conservation of different types of ecosystems as well as the design of corresponding PES schemes.

Value chain partnerships and farmer entrepreneurship as balancing ecosystem services: Implications for agri-food systems resilience

Both in the European Union (EU) and worldwide, the resilience of agri-food systems depends on the human ability to balance between socio-economic and ecological trade-offs. Recent ecosystem services literature acknowledges that smallholder farmers’ participation to stakeholder partnerships and continuous learning influences their balancing ability. Yet, little research has so far focused on how smallholders’ participation in partnerships with other value chain actors - such as companies supplying or procuring from them - shape their learning processes and, in turn, how their mindset and behavioral change influences agri-food systems resilience outcomes. To address this gap, this conceptual paper advances a framework suggesting plausible linkages between: the organization of value chain partnerships; smallholder farmer entrepreneurship (meant as the ability to redeploy resources innovatively in and around farms); and agri-food systems resilience outcomes (such as stabilizing rural livelihoods, supporting ecological services and enhancing socio-cultural services). This framework suggests that value chain partnerships are more effective in supporting the smallholder farmers’ entrepreneurial learning: when they pool more resources (both tangible, like financial or physical assets, and intangible as knowledge or market information) among partners; when they distribute decision-making rights over their use more evenly; and when they balance between formal and informal coordination mechanisms. On the basis of empirical examples, these conceptual arguments suggest that policy incentives – such as the new Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) in the EU – should be directed towards resource pooling, experimentation and learning to effectively support smallholder farmer entrepreneurship and their contribution to the achievement of agri-food systems resilience outcomes.

Household perspective on cropland expansion on the Tibetan Plateau

Cropland expansion has become a prominent feature in developing countries and regions. A comprehensive clarification of the causes of cropland expansion is conducive to the adoption of appropriate actions to intervene and adapt to climate change, support rational land use, and balance ecosystem services. Using the Pumqu River Basin (PRB) in the Tibetan Plateau as the study area, we constructed a conceptual model that emphasizes the role of households and explored the causes of cropland expansion based on field survey data. Our results indicate that households’ perception of climate change, families’ non-agricultural income, the numbers of agricultural labor force, and the population pressure faced were the causes of cropland expansion in the PRB. Based on these findings, corresponding policy recommendations to limit the spontaneous cropland expansion behaviors of local households and reduce the ecological loss caused by cropland expansion are proposed.

Spatiotemporal changes in ecosystem services in the conservation priorities of the southern hill and mountain belt, China

Ecosystems are severely damaged with rising global temperatures, the rapid increase in population and the continuous exploitation and utilization of natural resources. The selection of conservation priorities is of great significance to regional ecological security and sustainable development. Here we identified conservation priorities by balancing ecosystem services trade-offs and analyzed the spatiotemporal changes in ecosystem services. Water yield, soil conservation, carbon storage, habitat quality, and ecological recreation were quantified using the InVEST model. By comparing conservation efficiencies under each scenario, we found the conservation efficiencies of the conservation priorities for water yield, soil conservation, habitat quality, carbon storage, and ecological recreation to be 1.05, 1.76, 1.30, 1.37 and 1.41, respectively. The conservation efficiencies of ecosystem services were consistently greater than 1 during the years 2000–2015. The implementation of the Grain-for-Green Programme and increased rainfall have improved ecosystem services and our results are of great significance to regional ecological and environmental protection and the improvement of ecosystem services.

Urban foraging of five non-native plants in NYC: Balancing ecosystem services and invasive species management

The practice of collecting wild plants, fungi, and other materials occurs in urban and peri-urban communities around the world, across various socioeconomic, ethnic, and cultural groups, providing sustenance, medicine, materials, social cohesion, and an increased sense of connectedness with nature. Invasive plants, many of which were introduced and cultivated purposefully in the past, can be foraged to generate socioeconomic and cultural value for communities while simultaneously facilitating ecosystem services. I will profile several invasive plants common to New York City (NYC), purposefully introduced in the 18th-19th centuries, including Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica), garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata), tree of heaven (Ailanthus altissima), Norway maple (Acer platanoides), and white mulberry (Morus alba), providing an overview of the plants’ cultivation history, socioeconomic value, and ecological threat. Partnerships between foraging communities and greenspace managers offer potential opportunities to support invasive species management in urban ecosystems. The goal of this article is to help shift the knowledge and management strategies around non-native plants in urban environments, so that their potential socioeconomic value and provisioning services received through urban foraging are accounted for in urban ecosystem management approaches.

A multi-model approach for analysing water balance and water-related ecosystem services in the Ouriyori catchment (Benin)

ABSTRACT Freshwater supply remains limited in West Africa due to lack of operational governance frameworks. In this study, the Water flow and balance Simulation Model (WaSiM) and the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) were applied in the Ouriyori catchment (14.5 km2, Benin) to assess hydrological ecosystem services (HES) in terms of service flow and service capacity using the ecosystem accounting framework. The modelling exercises indicated satisfactory goodness-of-fit coefficients greater than 75% with an absolute bias of less than 25%. The HES capacity was in general higher than the HES flow for crop and household (surface/groundwater) water supplies, indicating that the catchment can potentially supply more water under optimal storage and management conditions. Positive and negative shifts in service capacities of crop water and household supplies were observed over the simulation period. These significant results can support sustainable interventions in securing water and food productions through increasing HES flow and capacity.

How to balance ecosystem services and economic benefits? – A case study in the Pearl River Delta, China

There is a significant challenge in resource management: the perceived trade-off between economic growth and ecosystem conservation. In this study, we integrate a variety of quantitative research methods and models, such as the ecosystem service value (ESV), interval parameter planning (IPP), Dyna-CLUE, and Monte Carlo methods, in an attempt to balance the ESV and economic benefits. The highest system benefits can be obtained, and uncertainty in the ecosystem assessment is considered. Taking the Pearl River Delta as the study area, the results show that when the GDP growth rate is less than 6%, the ESV in 2025 will be higher than the ESV in 2017. An interval approach (upper and lower bounds) is used. For a scenario with a 5% GDP growth rate, the ESV is RMB¥ [1.85, 20.79] × 109, which is more than the ESV of the scenario with a 9% GDP growth rate. When the GDP growth rates are 5% and 9%, the proportions of forestland are [61.5%, 61.7%] and [58%, 58.2%], respectively. Furthermore, spatialization was performed using the Dyna-CLUE model. In 2025, the simulated area of farmland is larger in some small regions with 9% GDP growth rate than it is in regions with 5% GDP growth rate, thus achieving a balance between occupation and compensation of regional farmland. By comparing ecosystem planning under different GDP growth rates, an optimized land-use allocation method can help decision makers balance system benefits and ecological risks, which can provide multiple options and specific locations for decision.

Analysis of Nitrate Pollution Pathways on a Vulnerable Agricultural Plain in Slovenia: Taking the Local Approach to Balance Ecosystem Services of Food and Water

Groundwater pollution with nitrate of agricultural origin is a major problem in many countries. A great deal of effort is focused on finding ways to reduce leaching from agricultural land. In this study, different land management scenarios were evaluated with the SWAT model in order to determine which are the most effective in reducing nitrate leaching on specific soil types in the Krška kotlina alluvial plain (Slovenia). The area is very important both for agriculture production and drinking water resources. The model was calibrated for three soil moisture field trial sites, each representing one major soil type of the area. Simulated soil moisture values were in good agreement with the observed values (PBIAS (percent bias) ±25%). Of the nine land management scenarios that were evaluated, vegetable rotation caused the most nitrate leaching on all soil types, but it fared better on Cambisol than on Fluvisol. Orchards on the other hand leached the least amount of nitrate, but also fared better on Cambisol. Presented studies should be considered as a preliminary stage in the study of nitrate pollution in the investigated area. Results show that nitrate leaching varies for different land management scenarios on different soil types. Further work should concentrate on field trials to evaluate the impacts of reduced fertilization on nitrate leaching and both crop yield and quality on different soil types.

Optimising land use allocation to balance ecosystem services and economic benefits - A case study in Wuhan, China

The optimisation of land use allocation plays an important role in sustainable land use planning. It is crucial to realise the synergy between economic development and ecosystem conservation by optimising land use allocation. In this study, we developed a method to optimise land use allocation to balance ecosystem services and economic benefits based on the spatial difference of both ecosystem services value (ESV) and land use efficiency, based on the LAND System Cellular Automata model for Potential Effect (LANDSCAPE). In the optimisation model, spatial difference of ESV was represented by the parameter of resistance, while spatial difference of land use efficiency was expressed as the parameter of asynchronous rate of transition. Subsequently, land use allocation was optimised based on spatial difference of resistances and asynchronous rates. Taking Wuhan as the study area, the proposed optimisation model was used to conduct the optimisation of land use allocation during 2010–2020. Results showed that: economic benefits would increase by 444.77 million US$, while losses of ESV would decrease by 142.55 million US$ by optimisation of land use allocation. This indicated that the optimal allocation of land use based on spatial difference of ESV and land use efficiency can increase economic benefits at lower cost of ESV. In conclusion, it is feasible to allocate land resources to balance ecosystem services and economic benefits based on the differences of ESV and land use efficiency. This study highlights that taking the spatial difference of both ESV and land use efficiency into consideration is helpful for a sustainable land use planning.

Soil Security for Australia

Soil Security is an emerging sustainability science concept with global application for guiding integrated approaches to land management, while balancing ecosystem services, environmental, social, cultural, and economic imperatives. This discussion paper sets the scene for an Australian Soil Security framework as an example of how it might be developed for any country, defining the key issues and justification for Soil Security, as well as detailing implementation requirements and benefits; two examples of beneficial outcomes are provided in terms of facilitating decommoditization of agricultural products and the impact of urban encroachment on productive land. We highlight research gaps, where new knowledge will contribute to well-rounded approaches that reflect differing stakeholder perspectives. We also provide key nomenclature associated with a potential Soil Security framework so that future discussions may use a common language. Through this work we invite scientific and policy discourse with the aim of developing more informed responses to the myriad of competing demands placed on our soil systems.

Ecosystem services, ecological integrity, and native species planting: How to balance these ideas in urban forest management?

Many North American municipalities are developing management plans to guide major investments in their urban forest. These efforts reflect a recent shift in urban forest management, towards ecosystem service provisioning and ecological integrity. The objective of this short communication is to examine how municipal urban forestry plans balance ecosystem services and ecological integrity through a case study of Ontario, Canada. Our review found that all plans emphasize ecosystem service provisioning and ecological integrity, as well as the importance of planting native species, but the majority of plans do not operationalize these ideas. Furthermore, their is tension and uncertainty between managing for ecosystem services and ecological integrity that is neither acknowledged nor addressed. We argue that the tension between ecosystem service provisioning and ecological integrity related to the role of native species can be reduced by recognizing that non-native species are appropriate to achieve both ideas in urban landscapes. A shift away from prioritizing native species would also better align management plans with current practice.

Soil Chemistry and One Health

The One Health Initiative started as a joint effort between medical doctors and veterinary medical professionals. Because of this origin, much of the concept is still focused on human and animal health. However, the health and well-being of humans and animals depend on healthy plants, soils, and water sources. Recognizing this connectivity, One Health now has a broader mission, encompassing environmental health in many forms. The Initiative works at local, national, and global scales with efforts targeting the integration of human medicine, veterinary medicine, and environmental science. The November–December 2018 issue of the Journal of Environmental Quality includes a special section “Soil Chemistry and One Health” (https://dl.sciencesocieties.org/publications/jeq/tocs/47/6) to bring attention to the role of soil as part of the One Health Initiative. The idea of raising awareness to researchers was brought up at the 2016 ASA, CSSA, SSSA Annual Meeting in Phoenix. Tsutomu Ohno, a member of SSSA, and Ganga M. Hettiarachchi, an ASA and SSSA member, were the guest editors of this collection of papers. Soil chemistry at the intersection of ecosystem services and One Health objectives. Modified from Keith et al. (2016; see https://bit.ly/2A38b6T). Both Ohno and Hettiarachchi are soil chemists who are interested in the way soil chemistry can impact environmental quality. Specifically, Ohno's research focuses on the interaction of soil organic matter and soil phosphorus, and Hettiarachchi's research investigates mechanisms and interactions involved in soil chemical reactions enhancing soil quality to improve crop production and protection of human health. Ohno and Hettiarachchi, who provided information about the special section to CSA News magazine via email, wrote, “Our broad call for papers required that the papers address the current state of knowledge of the links between soil chemistry, food safety and security, environmental quality, and human health issues.” They state that the One Health Initiative requires a holistic framework, which will rely upon multidisciplinary solutions to address both local and global challenges. In the introduction to the special section (https://doi.org/10.2134/jeq2018.08.0290), Ohno and Hettiarachchi point to several broad themes within the One Health Initiative where soil research is applicable. These include understanding the relationships between soil stewardship and health metrics; reducing food chain contamination that begins with crop uptake of chemical contaminants; mediation of pathogenic organisms important to crop, animal, and human health; and balancing ecosystem services and health metrics. Ohno and Hettiarachchi hope this collection of papers can clarify the connections among soil health, environmental quality, food safety and security, and human health and specifically the role of soil chemistry. Soil chemistry research that focuses on nutrients or contaminants in soils and the potential for crop uptake or leaching into waterways have broader impacts on environmental and human health. This collection of papers cover a variety of topics that will be of interest to members from across the three societies, not just soil scientists. This includes research focused on how antibiotics enter the environment through wastewater treatments systems and manure applications, biofortification of crops, and long-term changes in soil biota. “By definition, One-Health Initiative studies encompass a multidisciplinary approach to complex, critical environmental quality issues,” write Ohno and Hettiarachchi. Thus, these studies should be of interest to plant scientists and agronomists as much as soil scientists. Looking to the future, it is these holistic research studies that are likely to lead to results that directly benefit environmental sustainability and human and animal health.” Check out this special collection of papers, Soil Chemistry and the One Health Initiative,” in the November–December 2018 issue of the Journal of Environmental Quality (JEQ): https://dl.sciencesocieties.org/publications/jeq/tocs/47/6.

Leaving moss and litter layers undisturbed reduces the short-term environmental consequences of heathland managed burns

Variation in the structure of ground fuels, i.e. the moss and litter (M/L) layer, may be an important control on fire severity in heather moorlands and thus influence vegetation regeneration and soil carbon dynamics. We completed experimental fires in a Calluna vulgaris-dominated heathland to study the role of the M/L layer in determining (i) fire-induced temperature pulses into the soil and (ii) post-fire soil thermal dynamics. Manually removing the M/L layer before burning increased fire-induced soil heating, both at the soil surface and 2 cm below. Burnt plots where the M/L layer was removed simulated the fuel structure after high severity fires where ground fuels are consumed but the soil does not ignite. Where the M/L layer was manually removed, either before or after the fire, post-fire soil thermal dynamics showed larger diurnal and seasonal variation, as well as similar patterns to those observed after wildfires, compared to burnt plots where the M/L layer was not manipulated. We used soil temperatures to explore potential changes in post-fire soil respiration. Simulated high fire severity (where the M/L layer was manually removed) increased estimates of soil respiration in warm months. With projected fire regimes shifting towards higher severity fires, our results can help land managers develop strategies to balance ecosystem services in Calluna-dominated habitats.

Siting green stormwater infrastructure in a neighbourhood to maximise secondary benefits: lessons learned from a pilot project

When siting green stormwater infrastructure (GSI), cities do not respond only to technical and regulatory requirements; they also strive to maximise environmental, aesthetic and social benefits. To help cities optimise the siting of GSI in the context of climate change, we developed a participatory decision support tool. Applied to a neighbourhood, this tool identified only a few sites where GSI would yield all secondary benefits and reduce climate change vulnerability. In the light of the need for large-scale implementation of GSI in cities, this finding raises the following questions: How can the potential benefits provided by a site be best identified? Are there potential synergies or antagonisms between benefits? How do they relate to vulnerability? Can a participatory decision-making process involving local stakeholders improve this process? Informed by the existing literature on balancing ecosystem services and vulnerability, these questions are addressed within a broader perspective of landscape design and urban planning.