Baking Quality Of Wheat Flour Research Articles

The Baking Quality of Wheat Flour (Triticum aestivum L.) Obtained from Wheat Grains Cultivated in Various Farming Systems (Organic vs. Integrated vs. Conventional)

The quality of flour is influenced by various factors including genotype, environmental and agronomic conditions, post-harvest grain storage, and milling technology. Currently, the EU focuses on reducing mineral fertilization and promoting less intensive agrotechnology (organic and integrated farming). This research aimed to assess the baking value of flour obtained from four spring wheat cultivars cultivated in three farming systems: organic (ORG), integrated (INT), and conventional (CONV). The wheat grains were sourced from a three-year field experiment (2019–2021) conducted at IUNG-PIB in Pulawy, Poland. Results indicate that the CONV generally yielded more favourable qualitative parameters for the flour, including significantly higher protein content, wet gluten, falling number, and farinographic characteristics such as dough development, stability time, and quality number. Nevertheless, most flours from the ORG system met the quality requirements for the baking industry, showing adequate protein content, wet gluten, and falling number. However, flours from the INT system stood out due to significantly higher water absorption, resulting in increased dough and bread yield. Additionally, bread baked from these flours exhibited a significantly higher bread volume. In sensory evaluation, bread from CONV flours received the highest scores, although the differences in the overall acceptability were not significant.

Relationship between the baking quality of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and the protein composition and structure after shading

Although wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) grain protein content is increased by shade stress, the relationship between the baking quality of wheat flour and protein composition and structure remains unclear. Here, we investigated the effects of shade stress on wheat flour protein composition and structure. The contents of the flour protein, α/β-gliadins and disulfide and hydrogen bonds were significantly increased by shade stress. Glutenins, UPP%, and β-sheet contents also increased, whereas that of α-helices decreased. Spearman correlations revealed that the flour protein content, Glu:Gli ratio, and disulfide, hydrogen, and ionic bonds can predict the specific volume and number of crumb cells in bread, whereas α/β-gliadins content can predict the crumb cell wall thickness and diameter of bread. Under shade stress, variations in protein composition and structure help increase the specific volume and crumb cells number and decrease crumb cell wall thickness and diameter of bread, ultimately leading to improved baking quality.

Comprehensive study on gluten composition and baking quality of winter wheat

AbstractBackground and ObjectivesProtein and gluten content and composition are important for the baking quality of wheat flours. Our aim was to provide a comprehensive characterization of 82 wheat flours to analyze the influence of protein composition on rheological and baking quality parameters.FindingsProtein composition, starch gelatinization behavior, as well as rheological (microfarinograph, gluten aggregation, extensibility), and baking parameters were determined. The correlation matrix showed no significant correlations between gluten composition and loaf volume. Parameters of the gluten aggregation test allowed a prediction of gluten, gliadin, and glutenin content with an absolute root mean square error of cross validation of 7.5, 6.0, and 3.2 mg/g, respectively, using partial least squares regression. Starch gelatinization temperature had an effect on gluten aggregation.ConclusionsThe gluten aggregation test was suitable to predict gluten, gliadin, and glutenin content. The lack of correlations between protein composition and loaf volume indicates that baking quality is the result of a complex combination of different parameters.Significance and NoveltyOur study is the first to comprehensively analyze 82 wheat flours, especially in terms of gluten composition. We show that flour blends can reach excellent baking quality even if quality indicators like crude protein or extensibility are comparatively low.

Effects of a late N fertiliser dose on storage protein composition and bread volume of two wheat varieties differing in quality

Wheat is an important source of energy and protein for humans all over the world and is mainly consumed in form of baked goods, for which a high baking quality is required. The main parameter for bread-making quality predictions of wheat flours is the grain protein concentration (GPC). Therefore, the GPC determines the value of the harvested wheat. Unfortunately, the GPC appears to be no longer an appropriate parameter for baking quality evaluation, given that, especially for high protein varieties, the correlation between GPC and bread volume is poor. A late N application is commonly used to increase GPC and enhance the bread-making quality of wheat flours. To minimise the environmental problems involved in the late use of N fertilisers, it is important to know how much N is necessary to achieve the desired effects. Therefore, in this study, the effects of two different doses of late N application on the GPC, as well as storage protein composition and bread volume were tested in two wheat varieties from different quality groups under field conditions in Germany. The findings of this experiment demonstrate that a low late N application appears to be sufficient to achieve a good baking quality of wheat flours. These results confirm the presumption that GPC is not a suitable parameter for bread-making quality predictions. As the relationships between the single storage protein fractions and bread volume were poor, it can be concluded that only the combined alterations within all gluten protein fractions explain the rise in bread volume.

Protein Composition and Baking Quality of Wheat Flour as Affected by Split Nitrogen Application.

Baking quality of wheat flour is determined by grain protein concentration (GPC) and its composition and is highly influenced by environmental factors such as nitrogen (N) fertilization management. This study investigated the effect of split N application on grain protein composition and baking quality of two winter wheat cultivars, Tobak and JB Asano, belonging to different baking quality classes. Bread loaf volumes in both cultivars were enhanced by split N application. In contrast, GPC was only significantly increased in JB Asano. Comparative 2-DE revealed that the relative volumes of 21 and 28 unique protein spots were significantly changed by split N application in Tobak and JB Asano, respectively. Specifically, the alterations in relative abundance of certain proteins, i.e., globulins, LMW-GS, α-, and γ-gliadins as well as α-amylase/trypsin inhibitors were more sensitive to split N application. Furthermore, certain proteins identified as globulins and alpha-amylase inhibitors were changed in both wheat cultivars under split N application. These results implied that the functions of these unique proteins might have played important roles in affecting baking quality of wheat flour, especially for cultivars (i.e., Tobak in the present study) the baking quality of which is less dependent on GPC.

Splitting nitrogen applications improves wheat storage protein composition under low N supply

AbstractFor the baking quality of wheat flours, the composition and concentration of grain protein are crucial. It is common practice to use late nitrogen (N) application to increase grain protein concentration (GPC) and hence, improve baking quality. However, the use of N fertilizer—particularly shortly before harvest—involves environmental risks. With the suitability of GPC as a parameter for baking quality predictions being more and more questioned, there are further investigations needed considering not only the GPC but also the composition of grain protein. Gluten protein composition varies depending on genotype and environmental factors, such as weather conditions and fertilization rate. To examine whether the effect of a split N application varies under different amounts of total N supply, this study investigates the effects of split nitrogen application on grain protein concentration and composition of wheat (Triticum aestivum L. cv. JB Asano) at four different N fertilization levels (0.8; 1.0; 1.2, and 1.4 g N pot−1) in a pot experiment. The GPC was affected by both, N fertilization level and split N application. In this experiment, the minimum GPC of 13%, which is required for class A wheat varieties, was only achieved when N supply was moderate (at least 1.2 g N per pot). Considering the storage protein composition, the split N application influenced the proportion of α‐/β‐gliadins and γ‐gliadins, the alterations being inconsistent. The ratio of high molecular weight (HMW) to low molecular weight (LMW) glutenin subunits was increased by the split N application only at the lowest N fertilization level. It is concluded that splitting N fertilization into three doses and hence applying one dose of N late in the season can still be a useful approach to improve GPC as well as protein composition – especially when the total N supply is low.

Predicting rheological behavior and baking quality of wheat flour using a GlutoPeak test.

Baking test is considered as the most reliable method for assessing wheat-baking quality. However, baking test requires trained stuff, time, and large sample amount. These disadvantages have led to a growing demand to develop new rapid tests which would enable prediction of baked product quality with a limited flour size. Therefore, we tested the possibility of using a GlutoPeak tester to predict loaf volume and breadcrumb textural properties. Discrimination of wheat varieties according to quality with a restricted flour amount was also examined. Furthermore, we proposed the limit values of GlutoPeak parameters which would be highly beneficial for millers and bakers when determine suitability of flour for end-use.

Responses of wheat yield, quality and bread-making properties on the sulphur fertilization

ABSTRACTThis study presents a versatile influence of sulphur (S) application on winter wheat – beginning with the influence on the grain yield and primary quality indices, followed by the one on the bread-making properties of flour and dough, and ending with the one on the quality indices of baked products. Field experiments were conducted at two locations on haplic Luvisol and calcaric Cambisol during five years. S was given as NS-fertilizers on the background of N100 during wheat tillering. Flour and dough properties for bread-making were determined by using a farinograph Brabender. The baking tests were carried out in laboratory conditions. The influence of S on the grain yield and quality, and bread-making properties of wheat depended on the year and location. As the average of field experiments conducted at two locations, the application of S significantly increased the grain yield (r = 0.960). The increasing yields were accompanied by decreasing contents of wet gluten (r = 0.825). However, the significant positive (r = 0.938) effect of the S application on the Gluten index was revealed, which is a good predictor of the baking quality of wheat flour. The S addition by nitrogen fertilization resulted also in a positive shift of the N:S ratio in grains, which is better for the bread-making quality. The significant positive effects of the S application on the dough stability time (r = 0.898) and on the farinograph quality number (r = 0.917) were demonstrated. The loaf volume was significantly (r = 0.842) increasing under the influence of S. Thus, the application of S in parallel with increasing yields improved several bread-making parameters of wheat.

Bacterial nanocellulose as a potential additive for wheat bread

Bacterial nanocellulose (BNC) is an emerging nanomaterial with a morphologic structure of a 3-D network and unique properties produced by several species of bacteria. The objective of the present work was to evaluate whether the addition of BNC improved the baking quality of wheat flours, making a change in the viscoelastic behavior of the mass. A study of the rheological behavior of wheat bread dough containing BNC was performed by thermo-rheological and isothermal dynamic oscillatory experiments. The baking response and bread quality parameters were also analyzed. BNC increased specific volume, and moisture retention, decreasing browning index. Although BNC produced both raw and heat-treated doughs with more elastic characteristics, textural studies revealed that the addition of BNC reduced firmness of bread crumb. Confocal laser scanning microscopy observations showed differences in gluten filaments between control and BNC crumb samples that could explain the larger average porous size of BNC crumb. BNC could be used as improver in the bread-making performance.

Characterization of Genes Encoding Protein Disulfide Isomerase in Wheat Including the Specific Role of PDI in the Formation of Gluten.

The results of phylogenetic analyses revealed that the family of plant PDI may comprise of at least eight different subfamilies with varying numbers and positions of active centers while retention signals in the endoplasmic reticulum may be present or absent. At least one gene has been cloned for each phylogenetic group. Other phylogenetic analyses have indicated that the family of PDIlike proteins consists of ten classes, the first five of which include proteins equipped with two thioredoxin domains. These results indicate complexity and diversity of the family of protein disulfide isomerase in plants. The study of molecular characteristics of PDI in some cereal species have shown that this enzyme participates in the maturation of secretory proteins and also in the formation of albuminous substances in endosperm, in the mechanism of formation of disulfide bonds and polymerization of gluten polypeptides in wheat. The mechanism of formation of disulfide linkage was tested through in vitro experiments. However, it is not entirely certain whether it reflects their formation in vivo. The results of researches suggest that protein folding and disulfide bond formation occurs in the endoplasmic reticulum. PDI plays a prominent role among enzymes involved in posttranslational modification of proteins. The main goal of this work is to present research data on protein disulfide isomerase, which may be a leading research objective in the area of wheat gluten and the impact of PDI on the baking quality of wheat flour.

Late nitrogen application increased protein concentration but not baking quality of wheat

AbstractLate application of nitrogen (N) fertilizers at heading or anthesis is usually performed to produce wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) with high bread‐making quality. However, increasing energy costs and ecological problems due to N losses call for efficient and simplified N fertilization strategies. This study aimed to investigate the effect of late N fertilization on grain protein quality and thus baking quality and to evaluate if similar wheat quality can be maintained without late N application. Field experiments with two winter wheat cultivars differing in quality groups were conducted. The fertilization treatments comprised a rate of 220 kg N ha−1 applied in two or three doses (referred to as split N application), and 260 kg N ha−1 applied in four doses (additional late N fertilization) with different N fertilizer types. The results show that although split N application had no effect on grain protein concentration (GPC), it affected N partitioning in the grain, increasing mainly the concentration and proportion of the glutenin fraction. As a result, baking quality was improved by split N application. Late N fertilization enhanced GPC and the relative abundance of certain high molecular weight glutenin subunits (HMW‐GS). However, it had no effect on N partitioning in the grain and did not further improve baking quality. No obvious differences were found between N fertilizer types on grain yield and quality. The N fertilization effect was more pronounced on the wheat cultivar whose baking quality was more dependent on protein concentration. In evaluating baking quality of wheat flour, gliadin and glutenin proportions were better correlated with loaf volume than the overall protein concentration.

Split Nitrogen Application Improves Wheat Baking Quality by Influencing Protein Composition Rather Than Concentration.

The use of late nitrogen (N) fertilization (N application at late growth stages of wheat, e.g., booting, heading or anthesis) to improve baking quality of wheat has been questioned. Although it increases protein concentration, the beneficial effect on baking quality (bread loaf volume) needs to be clearly understood. Two pot experiments were conducted aiming to evaluate whether late N is effective under controlled conditions and if these effects result from increased N rate or N splitting. Late N fertilizers were applied either as additional N or split from the basal N at late boot stage or heading in the form of nitrate-N or urea. Results showed that late N fertilization improved loaf volume of wheat flour by increasing grain protein concentration and altering its composition. Increasing N rate mainly enhanced grain protein quantitatively. However, N splitting changed grain protein composition by enhancing the percentages of gliadins and glutenins as well as certain high molecular weight glutenin subunits (HMW-GS), which led to an improved baking quality of wheat flour. The late N effects were greater when applied as nitrate-N than urea. The proportions of glutenin and x-type HMW-GS were more important than the overall protein concentration in determining baking quality. N splitting is more effective in improving wheat quality than the increase in the N rate by late N, which offers the potential to cut down N fertilization rates in wheat production systems.

Significance of Starch Properties and Quantity on Sponge Cake Volume

ABSTRACTWe evaluated the qualitative and quantitative effects of wheat starch on sponge cake (SC) baking quality. Twenty wheat flours, including soft white and club wheat of normal, partial waxy, and waxy endosperm, as well as hard wheat, were tested for amylose content, pasting properties, and SC baking quality. Starches isolated from wheat flours of normal, single‐null partial waxy, double‐null partial waxy, and waxy endosperm were also tested for pasting properties and baked into SC. Double‐null partial waxy and waxy wheat flours produced SC with volume of 828–895 mL, whereas volume of SC baked from normal and single‐null partial waxy wheat flours ranged from 1,093 to 1,335 mL. The amylose content of soft white and club wheat flour was positively related to the volume of SC (r = 0.790, P < 0.001). Pasting temperature, peak viscosity, final viscosity, breakdown, and setback also showed significant relationships with SC volume. Normal and waxy starch blends having amylose contents of 25, 20, 15, and 10% produced SCs with volume of 1,570, 1,435, 1,385, and 1,185 mL, respectively. At least 70 g of starch or at least 75% starch in 100 g of starch–gluten blend in replacement of 100 g of wheat flour in the SC baking formula was needed to produce SC having the maximum volume potential. Starch properties including amylose content and pasting properties as well as proportion of starch evidently play significant roles in SC baking quality of wheat flour.

Estimation of the baking quality of wheat flours based on rheological parameters of the mixolab curve

The Mixolab device in view of the characterisation of the thermo-mechanical behaviour of ten different flours, and establishing the correlations between the rheological parameters of wheat flour supplemented with different additives such as fungal α-amylase, fungal hemicellulase, and fungal xylanase weres exploted. The rheological measurements were performed using the Mixolab, Alveograph, and Rheofermentometer. Our results indicated significant positive and negative correlations between the parameters investigated. The changes of the Mixolab curve trend depended on the amylase doses. Significant correlations were established also between the Mixolab parameters and the results of the baking tests; the β slope, C2, C3, and C4 were positively correlated with the specific volume of the bread. Taking into account the results obtained, we may conclude that Mixolab is a complex device that renders the evolution of the bread during the entire technological process, from the dough making to the starch retrogradation.

Effect of high temperature and drought on the composition of gluten proteins in Martonvásár wheat varieties

Finding and improving wheat cultivars with good adaptability to abiotic stress is an important objective in breeding programmes. An experiment was set up in the climate chamber of the Martonvásár phytotron to test the effect of heat and drought stress on two winter wheat varieties and one variety of durum. Wheat plants exposed to 35°C and drought during grain filling exhibited altered agronomic and grain quality characteristics. Drought was found to have a much greater influence on yield and quality than heat stress. Reductions in the unextractable polymeric protein fraction and the glutenin-to-gliadin ratio indicated poorer grain yield quality as a result of drought, despite higher protein content. Quality deterioration was observed after drought, while heat stress had no noticeable influence on the protein quality of the three wheat genotypes, measured using size exclusion high performance liquid chromatography (SE-HPLC). The durum variety had a better ratio of protein components and a significantly higher Zeleny value when exposed to heat stress, although it had the lowest grain yield and grain/straw ratio.The most significant negative correlation was observed between the Zeleny value and the unextractable polymeric protein (UPP%) fraction after heat treatment and between the relative protein content and the albumin+globulin % (AG%) in the case of drought. These correlations testify that these parameters play an important role in determining the baking quality of wheat flour.

The effect of aphid infection and cultivar on the protein content governing baking quality of wheat flour

AbstractBACKGROUND: Aphids cause both quantitative and qualitative yield losses in cereals. Aphid feeding resulted in a significant decrease in gliadin/glutenin ratio in soft‐kernel wheat. Effect of aphid feeding on hard‐kernel wheat was examined.RESULTS: Plants of two different hard‐wheat cultivars were artificially infected by two aphid species: Sitobion avenae and Diuraphis noxia. Three different levels of caging regulated aphid density. Aphid density was highest in the cages, followed by open cages and lowest under no‐cage conditions. Numbers of D. noxia were generally higher compared to those of S. avenae. There was no significant difference in head length, mean kernel number/head, mean kernel mass/head or mean individual kernel mass between the two cultivars. Glutenin, gliadin and total protein content was analysed using size‐exclusion HPLC. Quality parameters of wheat flour were significantly different between the two cultivars. Gliadin content, total protein content and gliadin/glutenin ratio were significantly higher in Mv Magdaléna compared to Mv Magvas regardless of the level of caging and infestation, while glutenin content of uninfected Mv Magvas was significantly higher than that of Mv Magdaléna in the open cages. Aphid feeding did not induce any significant reduction in the gliadin, total protein content and gliadin/glutenin ratio of the examined hard wheat cultivars.CONCLUSION: Individual kernel mass reduction is the major factor in yield loss caused by aphids. Aphid feeding did not change the protein structure of hard‐kernel wheat. Copyright © 2007 Society of Chemical Industry

Rheological and Storage Effect of Hydrophillic Gums on the Quality of Frozen Dough Pizza

Conventional methods of dough development for the bakery products have very short storage time for the dough. Frozen dough, is the modification in dough development for increasing the storage time of dough for different bakery products. Frozen dough shelf life could be enhanced by the incorporation of different hydrocolloids in flour but there is decreasing trend in the quality of the frozen dough bakery products with the increase in storage periods. The present study was undertaken to determine the effect of Arabic gum and Carboxymethyl Cellulose (CMC) added in wheat flour on the rheological and baking performance of pizza prepared from frozen dough method. Frozen Dough Pizzas (FDP) were prepared from wheat flour by adding different levels of gums after 0, 15, 30, 45 and 60 days of frozen storage. It was observed that water absorption, arrival time, departure time, peak time and tolerance index was higher in flours containing 3% CMC. Whereas mixing time and peak height percentage was found higher in the treatment having 3% Arabic gum. It can also be concluded from this study that the use of Arabic gum and CMC at the level of 3% on flour weight basis can improve the frozen dough pizza (FDP) quality. Frozen dough stabilizers have great potential for improving the overall baking quality of wheat flour during frozen storage.

Dough and Breadmaking Properties of Wheat Flour Substituted by 10% with Germinated Quinoa Flour

Dough physical properties and baking quality of wheat flour substituted by 10% with non germinated quinoa flour (control), 24-h, 48-h and 72-h germinated quinoa flours were studied. The stability time and valorimeter value of the control and 24-h germinated quinoa flour substituted wheat flours were significantly longer and higher than those of 48-h and 72-h samples. The 10% substitution of germinated quinoa flour for wheat flour made distinctly harder dough than that of the control. The low amount of total and inner gas generations was observed for the 48-h and 72-h samples, as compared with those of the control and 24-h germinated quinoa samples. SEM observations showed that the gluten matrix of the control and 24-h germinated quinoa flour substituted wheat dough seemed to be more extended and more dispersed than those of 48-h and 72-h samples. The loaf volume of bread made from 24-h germinated quinoa flour substitution for wheat flour was the largest among the germinated samples; however, no significant differences were observed between the control and 24-h samples.

Improving the Utility of Potato Pulp for Bread-Making by Fermentation with Rhizopus oryzae

Potato pulp is an agricultural by-product of the starch industry. To use it for bread-making, experiments were conducted to evaluate the bread-making quality of doughs to which intact potato pulp (IPP) and potato pulp fermented by Rhizopus oryzae NBRC 4707 (FPP) had been added. The use of IPP significantly decreased the baking quality of wheat flour by degrading the dough's physical properties and lowering the gas retention of the dough. The bread-making quality of dough to which potato pulp that had been fermented for 2 days by R. oryzae had been added was significantly better than that of dough to which IPP had been added. In particular, the bread quality, such as specific loaf volume (SLV), aspect and crumb grain, except for staling and color, were good. Increase of the dough's gas retention and gassing power were the primary reasons for its improvement. They seemed to be related to the decomposition of starch and fiber in potato pulp and the moderate pH lowering of potato pulp by organic acid formed in the fermentation process by R. oryzae. These results suggested that the fermentation with R. oryzae was useful because it improved the utility of potato pulp for bread-making.

Wheat protein quality in relation to baking performance evaluated by the Chorleywood bread process and a hearth bread baking test

Abstract The relationships between wheat protein quality and baking properties of 20 flour samples were studied for two breadmaking processes; a hearth bread test and the Chorleywood Bread Process (CBP). The strain hardening index obtained from dough inflation measurements, the proportion of unextractable polymeric protein, and mixing properties were among the variables found to be good indicators of protein quality and suitable for predicting potential baking quality of wheat flours. By partial least squares regression, flour and dough test variables were able to account for 71–93% of the variation in crumb texture, form ratio and volume of hearth loaves made using optimal mixing and fixed proving times. These protein quality variables were, however, not related to the volume of loaves produced by the CBP using mixing to constant work input and proving to constant height. On the other hand, variation in crumb texture of CBP loaves (54–55%) could be explained by protein quality. The results underline that the choice of baking procedure and loaf characteristics is vital in assessing the protein quality of flours.