Bakery Fat Research Articles

Nutrigenomic on Palm Phytonutrients

Nutritional genomics, or known as nutrigenomics, is the dietary effects on genome expression, such as protein expression, transcriptomics and metabolomics. Palm oil (Elaeis guineensis) has plenty of nutritional values that actually benefit its consumers. This oil is widely used in food production. It is not limited to cooking oil but includes applications such as margarine, shortening, vanaspati, bakery fats, flour confectionery, pastries, instant noodles and many others. Palm phytonutrients such as oil palm phenolics, α-tocopherol and tocotrienol-rich fraction, have been proven to have vast nutritional benefits. To date, the latest review paper on palm oil nutrigenomics was published in 2023, reviewing journals published in vitro up to 2019. Hence, this review was done to update the recently published articles on the effects of palm phytonutrients, in general, in genetic modulations. Keywords: Palm oil, nutrigenomic, nutrients, tocotrienol and carotenes.

Potential of avocado puree and orange fleshed sweet potato for wheat-based cake production

Avocado puree is rich in unsaturated healthy fats, being a better alternative to the saturated bakery fats usually used in cake production. Hence, the potential of avocado puree as a fat replacer and the use of composite flours made from wheat and orange fleshed sweet potato (OFSP) for cake production were investigated. Various ratios of substitution of the OFSP flours and avocado puree were used. The proximate composition of the flour blends, physical properties, colour and sensory acceptability of the cake were evaluated. Moisture content (6.17-9.17%) was low, such as to support stability during storage. The 100% OFSP flour had the highest content of ash, crude fat, and carbohydrate (1.50, 4.17, and 82.76%, respectively). The 100% wheat flour showed the highest protein content (15.42%) and fibre content (1.01%), whereas 100% OFSP had the lowest contents (4.53 and 0.21%, respectively). Significant variation of the cake height and weight were noticed among different formulations considered in this experiment. The cake produced with 90% wheat and 10% OFSP was the most preferred, with the highest overall acceptability (8.40). Therefore, wheat flour supplemented with 10% OFSP produces a batter which possesses the potential to create a health-beneficial cake and provide economic advantages to the nation by reducing wheat importation.

Amelioration of nutritional properties of bakery fat using omega-3 fatty acid-rich edible oils: a review.

Bakery products have gained prominence in modern diets due to their convenience and accessibility, often serving as staple meals across diverse regions. However, the fats used in these products are rich in saturated fatty acids and often comprise trans fatty acids, which are considered as a major biomarker for non-communicable diseases like cardiovascular disorders, obesity and diabetes. Additionally, these fats lack the essential omega-3 fatty acids, which are widely known for their therapeutic benefits. They play a major role in lowering the risk of cardiovascular diseases, cancer and diabetes. Thus, there is need for incorporating these essential fatty acids into bakery fats. Nevertheless, fortifying food products with polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) poses several challenges due to their high susceptibility to oxidation. This oxidative deterioration leads to not only the formation of undesirable flavors, but also a loss of nutritional value in the final products. This review focuses on the development of healthier trans-fat-free bakery fat enriched with omega-3 fatty acids and its effect on the physicochemical, functional, sensory and nutritional properties of bakery fats and products. Further, the role of various technologies like physical blending, enzymatic interesterification and encapsulation to improve the stability of PUFA-rich bakery fat is discussed, where microencapsulation emerged as a novel and effective technology to enhance the stability and shelf life. By preventing deteriorative changes, microencapsulation ensures that the nutritional, physicochemical and sensory properties of food products remain intact. Novel modification methods like interesterification and microencapsulation used for developing PUFA-rich bakery fats have a potential to address the health risks occurring due to consumption of bakery fat having higher amount of saturated and trans fatty acids. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

Chemical composition and storage temperature influence on textural characteristics of bakery fats derived from plant sources

Abstract Edible fats obtained from plant sources, characterized by their higher proportion of saturated fatty acids, typically exist in solid or semi-solid states and present different physical properties. The quality of solid or semi-solid vegetable edible fats plays a crucial role in the food production sector and for consumers alike. Attributes such as fat hardness and spreadability are significant factors for both industry and consumers, as these textural properties are directly influenced by the constituents of the fats. The chemical composition and fatty acid content of fats derived from plant sources correlated with textural characteristics such as hardness, plasticity, adhesiveness, viscosity, and also spreadability properties were investigated. The total color differences of fat samples varied from 7.06 to 45.50. Among the saturated fatty acids, palmitic acid occurred as the predominant one across palm oil, and margarine samples, while the most abundant monounsaturated fatty acid was oleic acid with an average of 36.41% for palm oil and 26.46% for margarine samples. The puncture test performed with three different penetrometers, and the spreadability test, conducted at two different temperatures, showed a differentiation of the analyzed fat samples.

Impact of fat types on the visual, textural, and sensory properties of Nanberenji (a traditional gluten-free cookie)

Abstract The objective of this research was to evaluate the effects of various fat types (Bakery fat, Ghee, and Olive oil) on visual characteristics, baking behavior, textural, and sensory properties of a traditional gluten-free rice-based cookie (Nanberenji). The ability of image analysis for measuring some quality properties of prepared samples were also assessed. The obtained data demonstrated that the dough prepared with bakery and olive oil had maximum and minimum hardness values, respectively. However, after baking, the samples prepared with olive oil showed the highest hardness, meaningfully. The given outputs from image processing depicted that cookie prepared with bakery fat (NBF) and samples prepared with olive oil (NOO) had the highest and lowest surface color uniformity, respectively. Over baking time, the intensity and changes in the behavior of image textural features of NG and NBF samples were the same, while NOO samples showed a different behavior. Based on sensory analysis results, olive oil, as a healthy unsaturated fat, is advised to be used in the formulation of Nanberenji to produce a gluten-free cookie with a desirable texture, color, and flavor.

Cluster approach to assessing nutritional-related health risks of the working-age population

Compliance with the principles of rational nutrition by the able-bodied population ensures the processes of biotransformation of harmful factors of the working environment, reduces the level of alimentary-dependent morbidity, occupational morbidity, industrial injuries, and contributes to an increase in labor productivity. The aim is to assess the nutritional-related health risks of the working-age population based on the cluster analysis of actual nutrition in order to develop preventive programs. The study involved 1624 people aged 18 to 65, 745 men and 879 women (workers in industrial enterprises, health care institutions, education, agriculture, and the private sector of the economy). The actual nutrition of the able-bodied population was carried out according to the questionnaire-survey method using the «Nutriprof» software complex, anthropometric indicators, hemodynamic parameters, indicators of carbohydrate, lipid metabolism, and vitamin provision were studied. Assessment of the dependence of alimentary-related risk factors with the nature of eating behavior was carried out using logistic regression analysis. Logistic regression analysis of food clusters made it possible to identify groups of the working-age population with the maximum risk of load due to the nutritional factor. The greatest number of risks was identified in cluster 2 with a high adherence to a «high-calorie» diet (excessive consumption of bakery products, fat and oil, sausages, confectionery and sugary carbonated drinks). Cluster analysis of the actual nutrition of the working-age population can be used to study the influence of risk factors associated with nutrition on health, as well as to develop and implement programs in the field of healthy nutrition in the context of the prevention of food-dependent diseases.

Effect of Fat Replacers on the Multigrain Biscuits

Nowadays, people are concerned about their health due to the change and modification in lifestyle. People demand a ready to eat food products that are healthy and safe. Biscuits or cookies are the most consumed snack product that gives feeling of fullness for the hunger between two meals and also liked by the every age group people. But the bakery fats and shortenings that are used in the preparation of biscuits, contain trans fatty acids that are not good for health. In this study, biscuits were formulated with multigrain flour (refined wheat flour, barley flour and corn flour) in pre-defined ratios using fat replacers to reduce the fat content and hence trans fatty acid content. Two types of fat replacers i.e. Polydextrose(PD) and whey protein concentrate (WPC) were used to replace the fat content of biscuits from 10-50%. On the basis of organoleptic quality analysis and physicochemical analysis, the biscuit sample in which 40% shortening was replaced by equal proportion of polydextrose and whey protein concentrate (WPC) was found optimum. So, this study suggest that fat can be reduced or partially replaced up to 40% by using PD and WPC without much change in the sensory and physical characteristics.

Effect of Fat Replacers on the Multigrain Biscuits

Nowadays, people are concerned about their health due to the change and modification in lifestyle. People demand a ready to eat food products that are healthy and safe. Biscuits or cookies are the most consumed snack product that gives feeling of fullness for the hunger between two meals and also liked by the every age group people. But the bakery fats and shortenings that are used in the preparation of biscuits, contain trans fatty acids that are not good for health. In this study, biscuits were formulated with multigrain flour (refined wheat flour, barley flour and corn flour) in pre-defined ratios using fat replacers to reduce the fat content and hence trans fatty acid content. Two types of fat replacers i.e. Polydextrose(PD) and whey protein concentrate (WPC) were used to replace the fat content of biscuits from 10-50%. On the basis of organoleptic quality analysis and physicochemical analysis, the biscuit sample in which 40% shortening was replaced by equal proportion of polydextrose and whey protein concentrate (WPC) was found optimum. So, this study suggest that fat can be reduced or partially replaced up to 40% by using PD and WPC without much change in the sensory and physical characteristics.

Biomass Production from Oil Palm and Its Value Chain

This work examined biomass production from oil palm and its value chain in Nsit Ibom Local Government Area, Akwa Ibom State. This work identified the various biomass products derived from oil palm, the value chain of the various types of oil palm Biomass and the level of Utilization of the various oil palm biomass. Ten villages were selected using simple random sampling method. 380 questionnaires were collected out of 400 that were distributed which helped in generating data on the level of utilization of the various types of biomass derived from oil palm and the farming practices applied in the cultivation of oil palm. The first Hypothesis stated that the level of utilization of the various biomass products derived from oil palm in Nsit Ibom local government area is significant and was tested using Chi-Square. The second Hypothesis stated that the value chain of oil palm biomass is significantly related to the level of utilization in Nsit Ibom local government area and was tested using Multiple Correlation Analysis. From the test of hypothesis using 0.05 significant, there is a significant impact of oil palm biomass utilisation on rural livelihood in Nsit Ibom LGA. The Multiple Correlation Coefficient of 0.68 shows that there is a relationship between oil palm biomass and utilisation in Nsit Ibom LGA. 37.5% of respondents show that utilization of biomass from oil palm is extremely high. The major biomass generated are Empty Palm Bunch (EPB), Palm Kernel Meal (PKM) and Palm Pressed Fibre (PPF). The value added product are categorized into two: food and non-food products. Food product includes cooking Oil, Deep Frying Oils, Margarines and spreads Bakery fats, Cocoa butter, alternative fats, Confectionary fats, Ice cream fats, Infants nutrition fats and Other food applications while non-food product includes Cosmetics and personal care Soaps, Candles, Pharmaceuticals, Lubrications and agro-chemicals. Therefore, it was recommended that comprehensive training of farmers on palm oil processing technologies should be enhanced in order to enhance the utilization of its biomass. Doi: 10.28991/HEF-2020-01-01-04 Full Text: PDF

The effects of adding \u201cflavour enhancers\u201d on levels of chloropropanediol esters and glycidyl esters in savoury shortbread

The effect of the addition of selected flavour enhancers (dried garlic, dried onion, caraway seeds, poppy seeds, kelp, sesame, Herbs de Provence) on levels of chloropropanediol esters (2-MCPDE, 3-MCPDE) and glycidyl esters (GE) was investigated in classic savoury shortbread with standard and reduced salt level. The changes in the amount of esters after a 2-month storage period were also analysed. Finally, selected products with reduced salt level were evaluated by consumers. The obtained results suggested that the MCPDE and GE present in bakery fat were transferred to the dough and partially decomposed during baking. Ester degradation depended on the presence of flavour additives and the amount of salt. The addition of poppy seeds or sesame accelerated the degradation, whereas onion and garlic inhibited the decomposition and, in some cases, promoted the endogenous formation of 3-MCPDE. The added salt also partially inhibited the decomposition of 3-MCPD esters but had no impact on 2-MCPDE changes. After a 2-month storage period, the level of 3-MCPDE increased in all samples that did not contain salt, while in salty products as well as for 2-MCPDE no such trends were observed. GE levels decreased after 2 months in almost all investigated samples. The consumer acceptability tests showed that the addition of poppy seeds or sesame seeds to the shortbread with reduced salt was highly evaluated by consumers. Hence, the addition of these flavour enhancers can mask the reduced salt amount, thereby lowering not only the level of sodium in the diet, but also the levels of toxic contaminants such as MCPDE or GE.

Polymorphism, textural and crystallization properties of winged bean (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus, D.C) oil-based trans-fatty acids free ternary margarine blends

Most margarine and bakery fats are produced from hydrogenated oils making the ingestion of large amounts of trans-fatty acids inevitable with consequential health hazards. Taking advantage of its high solid fat content (15%), winged bean oil-based margarine blends (F320 & F322) were prepared from wing bean oil (WBO), palm stearin (PS) and palm olein (PO) as follows (w/w): F320 (48.5%PS:1.5%PO:50%WBO) and F322 (1.5%PS:48.5%PO: 50%WBO). The blends were tested for textural, thermal properties and crystal growth pattern and polymorphic characteristics. Results showed F320 exhibited harder texture, had crystal morphology with size ranges of 1.0–1.60 μm (50%), 1.61–2.20 μm (23.38%), 2.21–3.40 μm (16.50%) and 3.41–5.20 μm (6.18%), evenly distributed resembling βʹ polymorphs, whereas F322 exhibited soft texture, and polymorphs with protruding needle-like crystals with size ranges of 1–1.60 μm (48.25%), 1.61–2.20 μm (23.96%), 2.21–3.40 μm (16.84%) and 3.41–5.20 μm (6.39%), unevenly distributed. Blend F320 thus showed good physicochemical properties as multi-purpose for use as table and bakery margarine especially in tropical climates. Both blends showed low atherogenic and thrombogenic indexes and thus low risk of CHD. This study further offer insight into the potential use of underutilized oilseed crop resources for making specialty and structured fats for the betterment of human life.

Effect of Chemical Interesterification on the Physicochemical Characteristics and Fatty Acid Profile of Bakery Shortening Produced from Shea Butter and Fluted Pumpkin Seed Oil Blend

The objective of this work was to evaluate the effect of chemical interesterification, as a modification process on the physicochemical properties and fatty acid profile of bakery shortening produced from a blend of Shea stearin and fluted pumpkin seed oil. The Shea nut oil was fractionated, and the solid stearin fraction blended with fluted pumpkin seed oil in the following ratios: 30:70, 40:60, 50:50,and 60:40 (Shea stearin: fluted pump seed oil), The blends were stabilized with recommended additives such as; distilled monoglyceride (E471) and preservatives such as; citric acid (E330), BHT (E321), homogenized by continuous stirring and crystalized by cooling at 17°C, then tempered at 23 – 25°C for 48h, to attain a stable polymorphic form, used as non-interesterified blends (NIEBs). Another set of 30:70; 40:60; 50:50; and 60:40 (Shea stearin: fluted pumpkin seed oil), were chemically interesterified with sodium methoxide (CH3ONa) as catalyst, crystalized, stabilized, and used as chemically interesterified blends (CIEBs).The chemical properties, physical characteristics (including solid fat content), and the fatty acid profile of all the chemically interesterified (CIEB) and the non-interesterified (NIEB) samples were determined. There was no significant (p>0.05) change in the peroxide value, iodine value, and the refractive index of NIEBs and there corresponding CIEBs. The acid value, free fatty acids, slip melting point, density, and solid fat content were significantly (p<0.05) reduced after interesterification. Interesterification caused rearrangement of triacylglycerol species, resulting in increased unsaturated fraction and reduction in the saturated fraction. Interesterification gave fats with wide plastic range suitable for bakery fats, icing-shortening, filler fats, and all-purpose shortenings.

Solid fat content and bakery characteristics of interesterified beef tallow-palm mid fraction based margarines.

Palm mid fraction (PMF) was interesterified with edible beef tallow (BT) catalyzed using sodium methoxide to investigate the effects on the solid fat content (SFC) of these palmitic rich plastic fats. Interesterified blends crystallize more slowly than BT. Conversely, the crystallization rates of PMF-BT-based interesterification (IE) products were compared with the starting mixture and IE products prepared with non-PMF triglycerides. The SFC PMF-based IE products increased significantly at temperatures between 25 and 40 °C. The SFC profiles became smoother and the products had potential to serve as base oils for preparing specialty fats with a wider range of plasticity. Further exploration of triacylglycerol (TAG) compositional changes revealed that PMF interesterified products had greater saturated/saturated/saturated (S/S/S)-type TAGs compared with soybean oil interesterified products. Moreover, in subsequent evaluations of BT-PMF-based IE fats as a margarine replacement effects in a baked cake model system showed that the material was a suitable functional oil base with acceptable aeration properties and plasticity during baking. Therefore, it is a potential alternative to IE-BT based and traditional IE-BT-palm oil based margarines. The physical-characteristics of bakery products prepared with this fat exhibited improved cake volume with fine structure and clear lifting properties, which affirmed the potential for its application in bakery fats.

Changes in Physicochemical Characteristics and Microbiological Quality of Bakery Shortening Formulated with Shea Butter and Fluted Pumpkin Seed Oil During Storage

The objective of this work was to evaluate the changes that occur in physicochemical characteristics and microbiological qualityof bakery shortening formulated with Shea stearin and fluted pumpkin seed oil blends during storage, so as to ascertain its storage stability. Edible oils were extracted from Shea nuts ( Vitellaria paradoxa Geartner) and Fluted pumpkin ( Telfairia occidentalis Hook ) seeds. The extracted Shea butter and fluted pumpkin seed oil samples were refined and modified using two methods namely fractionation and chemical interesterification to produce bakery fats. The Shea butter was fractionated, and the solid stearin fraction blended with fluted pumpkin seed oil in the following ratios: 30:70, 40:60, and 50:50, (Shea stearin: fluted pump seed oil), The blends were stabilized with recommended additives such as; distilled monoglyceride (E471) and preservatives such as; citric acid (E330), BHT (E321), and sodium benzoate (E211), homogenized by continuous stirring and plasticized by chilling to 17°C, then tempered at 23 – 25°C for 48h, to attain a stable polymorphic form, used as fractionated blends (FRBs). Another set of 30:70; 40:60; and 50:50 (Shea stearin: fluted pumpkin seed oil), were chemically interesterified with sodium methoxide (CH3ONa) as catalyst, crystalized, stabilized, and used as chemically interesterified fractionated blends (CIEFBs). The products were packed and sealed in opaque plastic cups and stored at room temperature (28±2°C) for 90 days. Changes in physicochemical properties (including solid fat content) and microbiological quality (yeast and moulds count) were determined. Peroxide value (PV) and acid value (AV) of the bakery fats formulated with fractionated blends increased slightly after 90 days of storage. There were no significant (P>0.05) increase in PV of the interesterified samples after storage for 90 days. No significant change was recorded in the iodine value, slip melting point, and smoke point of the products on storage, except the 30:70 fractionated blend which reduces in iodine value (IV) and smoke point from 94.60g/100g to 92.50g/100g, and 200.30°C – 198.00°C, respectively. The products were microbiologically stable throughout the period of storage.

Gluten free approach in fat and sugar amended biscuits: A healthy concern for obese and diabetic individuals

Flour premix of copra meal 15% with germinated foxtail millet 85% blended with amaranth in 60:40 proportions to get gluten free, calorie deficient composite mix for biscuits. Attempts were made for obese and diabetics as target population with maltodextrin and acesulfame-k to find the extent of possible partial replacement of bakery fat and table sugar, respectively. It was found that substitution feasibility to 48% fat and 47% sugar lie within the acceptable limits of physical and sensorial properties comparable to control sample. Successful calorie reduction in fat and binary (fat and sugar) amended biscuits were achieved to 364.58 kcal/g and 315.97 kcal/g, respectively, as in comparison with control (471.01 kcal/g). Low anti-nutrients (phytate and tannin) and increased polyphenols in biscuits is a function of germinated foxtail millet. Acrylamide development also restricted to 0.193 µg/g in sugar replaced and 0.32 µg/g in sugar and fat replaced biscuits comparable to control (0.5 µg/g). Practical applications Copra as by-product from coconut industry is rich in fiber and protein but still restricted to as livestock feed till date. Its utilization for human is itself a novel approach. Standardized inclusion of copra meal to selected nutritious gluten free grains reveals a healthy budgetary option. Further, intentional substitution of dense calorie compounds (fat and sugar) with their calorie deficit counterpart to target obese and diabetic along with celiac is investigated. Owe to protein richness of selected coarse cereal varieties and copra, huge malnourished population may easily access pseudo cereal and coarse cereal based composite food with enhanced health attributes.

Physicochemical Properties and Fatty Acid Profile of Shea Butter and Fluted Pumpkin Seed Oil, a Suitable Blend in Bakery Fat Production

Shea nuts (Vitellaria paradoxa) were cracked and sorted. Fluted pumpkin seeds (Telfairia occidentalis Hook) were dehulled and washed. The Shea kernel and Telfairia cotyledons were oven dried (60°C, 24h) separately in a hot air oven, milled into flour and oil extracted. Crude palm oil extracted from the palm fruit was used as control. The oil samples were analyzed for chemical composition, physical properties, and fatty acid profile. Shea nut oil (Shea butter) gave 58.00% ether extract, 0.88% free fatty acids, 1.7mgKOH/g acid value, 1.03mEqO2/kg peroxide value, 70.00g/100g iodine value, 227.94mgKOH/g saponification value, 0.95% Unsaponifiable matter, and 226.17mgKOH/g ester value. Fluted pumpkin seed oil gave 52.60% ether extract, 0.71% free fatty acids, 1.41mgKOH/g acid value, 1.17mEqO2/kg peroxide value, 119.67g/100g iodine value, 179.04mgKOH/g saponification value, 0.57% Unsaponifiable matter, and 177.63mgKOH/g ester value. The iodine value of Shea butter and Telfairia seed oil were significantly (p<0.05) higher than that of the control which gave 57.33g/100g iodine value. Shea butter also gave 1.461 refractive index, 0.927g/ml density, 36.57°C slip melting point, 211.00°C smoke point, 83.92cSt kinematic viscosity, and 4red and 20yellow lovibond colour. Fluted pumpkin seed oil gave 1.463 refractive index, 0.903g/ml density, 18.60°C slip melting point, 244.50°C smoke point, 34.98cSt kinematic viscosity, and 5red and 20yellow lovibond colour. Shea butter gave 50.6% total saturated fatty acids, and 49.1% total unsaturated fatty acids, with stearic (45.8%) and oleic (42.5%) as the predominant saturated, and unsaturated fatty acids respectively. Fluted pumpkin seed oil gave 18.4% total saturated fatty acids, and 80.2% total unsaturated fatty acids, with palmitic (17.5%) and linoleic (62.4%) as the predominant saturated, and unsaturated fatty acids respectively. Shea butter, with a melting point of 36.57°C will provide a good solid base for bakery fat production, while Telfairia seed oil with iodine value of 119.33(g/100g) will provide healthy fatty acids and the needed plasticity. A blend of Shea butter and fluted pumpkin seed oil in bakery fat production has potential to improve the nutritional and functional properties of the end products.

Eff ect of barley &amp;#946;-glucan addition as a fat replacer on muffi n quality.

The aim of this study was to perform the partial replacement of bakery fat with barley β-glucan in muffins and to determine its effect on the physical properties of products. Most shortenings used in the industry are solid fats rich in saturated fatty acids and often trans fatty isomers, which are nutritionally unfavorable. Dough and baked muffins were used as the research material. Five muffin recipes were prepared: control (K0%) with 16% fat content in the total dough weight, with fat content decreased by 10% (PG10%), 15% (PG15%), 20% (PG20%) and 25% (PG25%). β-glucan was used as a fat replacer in the 1:4 ratio. The parameters determining the physical characteristics and sensory attributes were measured, compared and statistically analyzed using a principal component analysis (PCA) method. Although the partial replacement of shortening with barley β-glucan is possible, it may negatively influence the physical properties of dough (aeration) and baked products (volume, density). It has been observed that increasing the content of this fat replacer enlarges the pores of the crumb. The textural properties of muffins with a fat content decreased by 20% are most similar to the control. Moreover, it has been shown that the overall sensory quality goes down when the amount of fat replacer in the muffin recipe is increased. However, adding β-glucan to products in which fat content was decreased by 10% did not influence significantly the typical taste. Despite the adverse effect of β-glucan on the physical and sensorial properties, it was found to be reasonable to use it even in small amounts (up to 10%) to increase the nutritional value of products.

Physicochemical and Rheological Characterization of Roll‐in Shortenings

AbstractThe composition and physical properties of roll‐in shortenings, commonly rich in trans and saturated fatty acids, were investigated and compared to other specialty fats, to provide insights into the physico‐chemical origins of their functionality. Triacylglycerols and fatty acid composition, polymorphic and melting behavior, solid fat content and large deformation rheological properties were determined. Roll‐in shortenings contained higher amounts of trisaturated and unsaturated triacylglycerols (12–27 %; 47–62 %) than other shortenings (9–11 %; 6–44 %). However, all exhibited high levels of saturates and trans fatty acids and similar crystal characteristics: β′ or mixed β′ and β, irrespective of their end use. Roll‐in shortenings had comparable melting peaks (42–52 °C) but sharper melting endotherms with higher enthalpies (38.6–43.3 J/g) than other bakery fats (18.7–25.4 J/g). This was in accordance with their well‐defined short spacings, indicative of smaller crystallites with more‐ordered packing. Solid fat profiles of roll‐in shortenings were akin to all purpose and cake interesterified shortenings, but not to all‐purpose and icing shortenings which displayed substantial melting as temperature rises. Differences in large deformation rheology (yield stress: σ*, apparent Young modulus: Eapp, yield value: C) were marginal and inconsistent with their solid fat content. Roll‐in shortenings exhibited Eapp, σ and C in the order of 1–2 × 106, 4–7 × 104, and 7–29 × 104 Pa, respectively. Particularly, the σ*and C, previously established as major parameters to specify the functionality of roll‐in shortenings, were not significantly different (p &gt; 0.05). Overall, roll‐in shortening differed from other samples in regard to molecular makeup but not greatly in their physical parameters, suggesting that triacylglycerol composition has important implications on their functionality.

Anhydrous milk fat as a substitute for partially hydrogenated fat: A comparative physico-chemical characterisation

Partially hydrogenated fat (PHF) is widely used in the food industry especially as a bakery fat. However, PHF is perceived to have adverse effects on health and hence needs to be replaced by a fat which has similar structural and organoleptic properties without having harmful effects on health. In present study anhydrous milk fat (AMF) was tested for this purpose by comparing the structural aspects of AMF with PHF. AMF from three different sources were characterised for their physico-chemical properties. AMF obtained from commercial sources (Com-AMF) and AMF prepared from cow milk (Cow-AMF) and buffalo milk (Bufl-AMF) was used in this study. The AMF samples contained 4.5-6.2% short chain fatty acids and 17.4-19.4% medium chain fatty acids which were not detected in PHF. The amount of trisaturated triacylglycerols (TAG) in Com-AMF, Cow-AMF and Bufl-AMF was 22.3, 18.8 and 22.5 respectively whereas PHF contained 27.5% trisaturated TAG. The results from DSC studies showed that the total change in enthalpy (∆H) for melting as well as crystallisation for Com-AMF was closer to that of PHF. The SFC pattern for Com-AMF and PHF indicated the plasticity of both the fats. Com-AMF samples showed TAG in β' polymorph similar to that of PHF. Micro-structural analysis showed crystal clusters of comparable size for Com-AMF and PHF with high refraction. The structural studies indicate that PHF can be replaced to certain extent with Com-AMF in the preparation of food products with desirable organoleptic properties.

Ingredient Functionality in Multilayered Dough-margarine Systems and the Resultant Pastry Products: A Review

ABSTRACTPastry products are produced from heterogeneous multilayered dough systems. The main ingredients are flour, water, fat and sugar for puff pastry, and the same plus yeast for fermented pastry. Key aspects in pastry production are (i) building laminated dough containing alternating layers of dough and bakery fat and (ii) maintaining this multilayered structure during processing to allow for steam entrapment for proper dough lift during baking. Although most authors agree on the importance of gluten and fat for maintaining the integrity of the different layers, detailed studies on their specific function are lacking. The exact mechanism of steam entrapment during dough lift and the relative contribution of water set free from the fat phase during baking also remain unclear. This review brings together current knowledge on pastry products and the factors determining (intermediate) product quality. Its focus is on flour constituents, fat, water, and (where applicable) yeast during the different production stages of pastry products. Future research needs are addressed as the knowledge on biochemical and physical changes occurring in flour constituents and other ingredients during pastry production and their effect on product quality is currently inadequate.