Bait Uptake Research Articles

Balancing act: evaluating non-target risks of feral cat management in conservation reserves

Context Predation by feral cats continues to place substantial pressure on native Australian wildlife, contributing to significant population declines and localised extirpations of susceptible species. In Western Australia (WA), the registration of the poison bait Eradicat® provides a tool to help manage these introduced predators, but only in areas where the risk to non-target species is considered acceptable. The red-tailed phascogale (Phascogale calura), a small carnivorous marsupial now restricted to vegetation remnants in the highly fragmented agricultural zone of south-western WA (i.e. the Wheatbelt), is one species that may be vulnerable to lethal ingestion. Aim To investigate the impact of repeated Eradicat® baiting, to control feral cats, on the activity levels of the red-tailed phascogale, focusing on populations in two Wheatbelt conservation reserves. Methods We established a novel approach to monitoring red-tailed phascogales by using tree-mounted camera trap arrays in an area with feral cat management using ground-delivered Eradicat® baits, and two control zones with no feral cat management. We examined changes in activity levels (detection rate and occupancy) based on camera trap detections, before and after Eradicat® application, across two autumn and two spring baiting events. We also investigated non-target bait uptake using camera traps. Key results Although a small number of baits (7/60) was removed by red-tailed phascogales from the field of view of a camera, our results showed no overall impact of Eradicat® on their activity levels within the study area. Tree-mounted camera traps proved to be highly effective and efficient at detecting red-tailed phascogales. To maximise camera detections, the optimal time for monitoring red-tailed phascogales is during autumn, prior to male die-off. Conclusions Our results suggested that the risk posed to red-tailed phascogale populations from the repeated use of Eradicat® baits is likely to be low. Implications Integrating the application of Eradicat® to control feral cats with existing fox control in conservation reserves that support populations of red-tailed phascogales is likely to pose minimal risk to the species.

Fipronil-infused sodium polyacrylate gels provide effective management of Argentine ants in conservation areas.

Various types of hydrogel compounds have recently been developed for controlling invasive and pest ants in a range of environmental settings including agricultural, urban and natural areas. The current study evaluated the potential of sodium polyacrylate (ACR) hydrogels to effectively deliver liquid baits to Argentine ants. Relative to standard polyacrylamide (PAM) hydrogels, individual ACR hydrogel particles were approximately five-fold heavier; this may affect how ants interact with the bait particles, and further influence bait uptake and efficacy. Additionally, ACR hydrogels had significantly higher water absorption capacity and significantly slower rate of water loss, especially during the first 2 h. The efficacy of ACR hydrogel bait containing 0.005% fipronil and various attractants was evaluated on laboratory colonies. Results demonstrated that ACR hydrogel acceptance is significantly increased by the addition of feeding attractants. In addition, a field trial was performed in a nature reserve invaded by Argentine ants to evaluate the efficacy of ACR hydrogel bait. The field trial demonstrated that ACR hydrogel bait containing 0.005% fipronil with various attractants is highly effective and that ant densities throughout the baited plots declined by >99% within 7 days. The results of this study demonstrate that: (i) fipronil is highly effective for Argentine ant control in natural areas when used in low concentrations (0.005%); (ii) ACR hydrogels are an effective tool for delivering liquid baits to Argentine ants; and (iii) hydrogel baits augmented with various attractants including salt, protein and pheromone are highly attractive to Argentine ants. © 2024 The Author(s). Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

An assessment of seasonal bait uptake by individual grey squirrels to develop a delivery system for oral contraceptives.

Globally, human-wildlife conflicts continue to increase, owing to human population growth and expansion. Many of these conflicts concern the impacts of invasive non-native species. In the UK, the invasive, non-native grey squirrel Sciurus carolinensis negatively affects tree health and has caused the decline of the native red squirrel Sciurus vulgaris. Oral contraceptives are being developed to manage the impacts of the grey squirrel. To be effective, contraceptives will need to be deployed at a landscape scale, and will require a delivery system that is practical and economically viable. Understanding grey squirrel feeding behaviour is important so that delivery methods can be designed so that a sufficient number oftarget individuals receive an effective contraceptive dose at a time of year that will ensure their infertility throughout peak times of breeding. The main aims of this study were to assess how sex, season, squirrel density and bait point density influenced; (1) the probability of a squirrel visiting a feeder and (2) the amount of bait consumed from feeders. Field trials were conducted on six woodland populations of squirrels in three seasons, with four days of bait deployment via purpose-designed squirrel-specific bait hoppers with integrated PIT-tag readers. It was possible to deliver multiple doses on most days to most male and female grey squirrels, with bait deployment more likely to be effective in spring, immediately before the second annual peak in squirrel breeding, followed by winter, immediately before the first peak in breeding. The results from this study could be used to design methods for delivering oral contraceptive baits to grey squirrels in the future and the methods used could be applied to other small mammal species and other bait delivery systems. © 2024 Crown copyright and The Author(s). Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry. This article is published with the permission of the Controller of HMSO and the King's Printer for Scotland.

Oral rabies vaccination of foxes in Türkiye, 2019–2022

BackgroundRabies in Turkey is maintained by dogs, but following a sustained spill-over, red fox mediated rabies had spread from the Aegean region to the central part of Türkiye. During the past four years from 2019 to 2023 large scale efforts used oral rabies vaccination (ORV) to control rabies in red foxes. Here, we present the results of the largest ORV campaign on the Asian continent. MethodsORV campaigns were carried out twice a year in spring and autumn with a targeted bait density of 20–23 baits/km2. Monitoring of ORV campaigns included the GIS-based analyses of bait distribution, the assessment of bait uptake through biomarker detection and the determination of seroconversion (sero-positivity in ELISA) in the target species collected within the vaccination area. For determination of fox rabies incidence in vaccination areas as the main indicator of the performance of the ORV campaigns, epidemiological data was obtained from the national passive surveillance program. ResultsAerial bait distribution was highly accurate, with >99 % of baits being recorded from targeted zones, thus meeting the desired bait densities. Although the overall bait uptake (28.1 %; 95 %CI: 23.2–32.8) and seroprevalance (36.3 %; 95 %CI: 30.0–43.2) were low, rabies incidence drastically decreased in ORV areas and rabies was eliminated from western and central parts of Turkey, with no reported cases in foxes from ORV areas in 2022 and 2023. ConclusionsA large-scale ORV campaign against fox rabies using high quality vaccine baits and the GIS-aided and monitored bait distribution was able to control fox mediated rabies in the western and central parts of Türkiye. Rabies control both in dogs and foxes should be expanded to cover also the eastern parts of Türkiye, to become eventually rabies free.

Taste aversion training can educate free-ranging crocodiles against toxic invaders.

Apex predators play critical ecological roles, making their conservation a high priority. In tropical Australia, some populations of freshwater crocodiles (Crocodylus johnstoni) have plummeted by greater than 70% due to lethal ingestion of toxic invasive cane toads (Rhinella marina). Laboratory-based research has identified conditioned taste aversion (CTA) as a way to discourage consumption of toads. To translate those ideas into landscape-scale management, we deployed 2395 baits (toad carcasses with toxin removed and containing a nausea-inducing chemical) across four gorge systems in north-western Australia and monitored bait uptake with remote cameras. Crocodile abundance was quantified with surveys. Free-ranging crocodiles rapidly learned to avoid toad baits but continued to consume control (chicken) baits. Toad invasion at our sites was followed by high rates of crocodile mortality (especially for small individuals) at a control site but not at nearby treatment sites. In areas with high connectivity to other waterbodies, repeated baiting over successive years had continuing positive impacts on crocodile survival. In summary, we succeeded in buffering the often-catastrophic impact of invasive cane toads on apex predators.

Influence of habitat and baiting strategy on oral rabies vaccine bait uptake by raccoons in the southeastern United States

Oral rabies vaccination (ORV) is the primary tool for landscape level control and elimination of rabies virus in terrestrial wildlife species. However, there is currently a limited understanding of how different baiting strategies influence raccoon (Procyon lotor) uptake of ORV baits in non-agricultural habitats in the Southeastern United States, which may hinder the refinement of ORV management for raccoons in this region. Using a combination of new and existing data, we investigated the role of baited area (0.16 vs 3 km2), bait density (75 vs 150 baits/km2) and season (spring vs fall) on placebo ORV bait uptake by raccoons in four rural, non-agricultural habitats in the southeastern United States (bottomland hardwood forest, upland pine forest, riparian forest, and isolated wetlands). Increasing the baited area to 3 km2 increased the proportion of raccoons that consumed baits by 140 % in riparian forests and decreased the proportion consuming baits by 70 % in bottomland hardwood forests. A greater proportion of raccoons consumed baits in riparian habitat in spring compared to fall, but bait density did not influence uptake in either season in this habitat. Increasing the bait density during spring in bottomland hardwoods increased the proportion of raccoons that consumed baits by 270 %, but there was no effect of increasing bait density in bottomland hardwoods during fall. We suggest that variation in habitat contiguity and seasonal resource availability influence how raccoons utilize these habitats which in turn impacts habitat-specific ORV bait uptake. The estimated proportion of raccoons that consumed baits did not exceed 60 % for any treatment, and for most treatments was less than 40 %. These low uptake rates indicate a need for research into additional strategies to maximize raccoon uptake of ORV baits across rural, non-agricultural southeastern landscapes.

Background food influences rate of encounter and efficacy of rodenticides in wild house mice

Abstract Baiting is widely used in wildlife management for various purposes, including lethal control, fertility control, disease and parasite control, and conditioned aversion programs for many invasive vertebrate species. The efficacy of baiting programs relies on the likelihood that target animals will encounter the bait, consume it and receive an appropriate dose of the active ingredient. However, there has been little focus on encounter rate of toxic baits combined with behavioural aversion, which are likely to be significant factors affecting efficacy. Following optimal foraging theory, the likelihood of an animal encountering and consuming a toxic grain bait should increase in proportion to its availability relative to background food quantity if it is neither more or less detectable or palatable. Furthermore, the probability of consuming toxic baits might also be influenced by bait aversion following ingestion of a non‐lethal dose of toxin. Using a model system of wild house mice (Mus musculus L.) in mouse‐proof enclosures in Australia, we manipulated background food, applied zinc phosphide (Zn3P2) baits and measured mouse mortality. When background food was scarce, mouse mortality was high, whereas an increasing abundance of background food led to reduced mortality. A scenario modelling random encounters and including bait aversion explained 78% of the variation in observed mortality outcomes and achieved a closer fit to the data than modelling random encounters alone. Mortality rates were predicted to be higher with a higher strength bait, which would overcome behavioural aversion. Ensuring that animals locate and consume a lethal dose of toxic bait is a critical factor for successful bait delivery and efficacy. This is particularly significant in toxic baiting programs, where sublethal doses can make animals feel sick, leading to a negative association with the bait, and the development of aversion. Synthesis and applications: Our findings explain why some toxic baiting programs might fail. To achieve successful control, efforts should be directed at reducing the availability of background food to increase the probability of encounter and uptake of toxic baits. It is important to measure and understand the role of background food on toxic baiting programs to explain variable outcomes and inform strategies for successful bait delivery.

Improving wasp control by identifying likely causes of eradication failure

AbstractStudying the efficacy of control methods is paramount to successful management of invasive pests and understanding why some colonies survive is important to improve management practices. Here, the bait Vespex® was used to control invasive wasps across 64 ha of forest in an invaded range near Hanmer Springs, New Zealand. Bait was applied across a standard 50 m by 300 m arrangement and made available for 3 days. Nest mortality rates after 19 days were 29.8%, although nearly all nests were affected with a median overall reduction in nest traffic of 96.5%. The results from logistic regression showed that, all else remaining equal, larger wasp nests, nests further from bait stations, and more isolated nests exhibited lower rates of mortality after baiting. Investigating the change in activity at surviving nests, the results from beta regression suggest that declines in nest traffic were less severe with increasing distance to the nearest bait, but more severe with increasing nest size. These results indicate that while smaller nests are at a higher risk of being killed by the bait, they may not encounter bait as regularly as larger nests. Bait uptake varied considerably across bait stations. Wasp nests were not randomly or uniformly distributed in space, and instead were aggregated across our treatment area, likely due to some aspects of environmental conditions. We suggest further research to be focused on developing an understanding of the drivers of wasp nest development and foraging behaviour, to produce a more flexible baiting procedure that will increase both baiting efficiency and efficacy.

Enhancing strategic deployment of baiting transects for invasive species control – a case study for feral pig baiting in north-eastern Australia

Context Baits are used to deliver lethal or other substances in wildlife management programs across the globe. Successful baiting campaigns are contingent upon the availability of baits to target animals. Bait density is often increased in an attempt to improve bait encounter probabilities. However, this comes with a concomitant increase in cost and may result in significant bait wastage if deployed in areas of low target species activity. Aims The aim of this study was to assess the effectiveness, efficiency and cost of different bait transect methods in intersecting home and core ranges of feral pigs as a case study to determine optimal spacing and placement of baiting transects. Methods The authors simulated a variety of systematically spaced aerial transects, watercourse-aligned aerial transects and ground transects along property boundaries and farm tracks, and compared them with home and core ranges of feral pigs, at two study sites in Queensland, Australia. Transect effectiveness at intersecting pig ranges was determined through beta-regression and estimated marginal means (emmeans); efficiency was considered as emmeans per unit of transect length. Key results The study found that systematically spaced aerial transects at 4 km intervals were the most efficient means of intersecting both home and core ranges of feral pigs. Additionally, no alternate transect method, either aerial or ground, provided significantly greater effectiveness at intersecting feral pig home and core ranges at these study sites. Ground transects along farm tracks and property boundaries were also between 113% and 192% more expensive than aerial transects at 4 km spaced intervals for either fixed-wing or rotary aircraft. Conclusion Systematically spaced aerial transects at 4 km intervals are among the most effective and are the most efficient means of intersecting feral pig ranges at the study sites examined. Implications Our methodology offers a blueprint for both vaccination and toxin baiting programs to assess and compare bait transect placements. More specifically for feral pig control, aerial transects with 4 km systematic spacing provide an effective and efficient means for intersecting feral pig ranges. Furthermore, additional data on bait encounter and interaction probabilities are required to determine transect effectiveness at bait uptake by the target species.

Comparison of baiting strategies in common vole management.

Worldwide, pest rodents can cause extensive damage to agriculture, forestry, food storage, and infrastructure and pose a risk to public health and livestock due to the spread of zoonotic pathogens. In Europe, the most common pest rodent species is the common vole (Microtus arvalis). Management during periodic outbreaks largely relies on rodenticidal bait with zinc phosphide. Efficient baiting with rodenticides or possibly anti-fertility products in the future require baiting methods that allow a sufficient proportion of the population to consume an effective dose of bait. We used a bait with the quantitative marker ethyl-iophenoxic acid (Et-IPA) to evaluate baiting strategies in enclosure experiments. This wheat-based bait with Et-IPA was placed in bait boxes or directly into the tunnel system entrances in different seasons and common vole abundances. Voles were live-trapped, individually marked and blood samples were collected to relate Et-IPA blood residues to bait uptake. The percentage of animals consuming bait was not heavily affected by the baiting strategy but voles had higher Et-IPA blood residues if tunnel baiting was used in autumn and if bait boxes were used in winter. Non-reproductive as well as lighter animals tended to have higher Et-IPA blood residues than reproductive individuals, whereas sex had no effect. Population density had a negative effect on the probability of residues present as well as on Et-IPA blood concentration. The results of this study might help to improve baiting techniques to manage overabundant rodent pest species regardless of the compounds to be delivered. © 2024 Julius Kühn-Institut. Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Consumption of Rodenticide Baits by Invertebrates as a Potential Route into the Diet of Insectivores.

Non-target species are commonly exposed to anticoagulant rodenticides worldwide, which may pose a key threat to declining species. However, the main pathway of exposure is usually unknown, potentially hindering conservation efforts. This study aimed to examine whether baits mixed with the biomarker rhodamine B can be used to track invertebrate consumption of rodenticides in a field environment, using this to observe whether invertebrate prey are a potential vector for anticoagulant rodenticides in the diet of insectivores such as the European hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus). Rhodamine B baits were found to create an observable response. Uptake was negligible in captured insects; however, 20.7% of slugs and 18.4% of snails captured showed uptake of bait. Maximum temperature, distance from bait, proximity to buildings, and the addition of copper tape to bait boxes all influenced the rate of bait uptake in molluscs. Based on these data, it seems likely that molluscs could be a source of rodenticide poisoning in insectivores. This research demonstrates which prey may pose exposure risks to insectivores and likely environmental factors, knowledge of which can guide effective mitigation measures. We suggest that further investigation into using mollusc repellents around bait boxes should be considered.

Retrospective analysis of sero-prevalence and bait uptake estimations in foxes after oral rabies vaccination programmes at European level: Lessons learned and paths forward

Rabies caused by the Classical Rabies Virus (Lyssavirus rabies abbreviated RABV) in the European Union has been close to elimination mainly thanks to Oral Rabies Vaccination (ORV) campaigns targeting wildlife (primarily red foxes). ORV programmes co-financed by the European Commission include a monitoring-component to assess the effectiveness of the ORV campaigns at national level. This assessment is performed by a random collection of red foxes in the vaccinated areas with control of antibodies presence by serological analysis and control of bait uptake by detection of biomarkers (tetracycline incorporated into the baits) in the bones and teeth. ORV programmes aim to a vaccine coverage high enough to immunize (ideally) 70 % of the reservoir population to control the spread of the disease. European Union (EU) programmes that led to almost elimination of rabies on the territory have been traditionally found to have a bait uptake average of 70 % (EU countries; 2010–2020 period) while the seroconversion data showed an average level of 40 % (EU countries; 2010–2020 period). To better understand variations of these indicators, a study was been set up to evaluate the impact of several variables (linked to the vaccination programme itself and linked to environmental conditions) on the bait uptake and the seroconversion rate. Thus, pooling data from several countries provides more powerful statistics and the highest probability of detecting trends. Results of this study advocate the use of a single serological test across the EU since data variation due to the type of test used was higher than variations due to field factors, making the interpretation of monitoring results at EU level challenging. In addition, the results indicates a negative correlation between bait uptake and maximum temperatures reached during ORV campaigns questioning the potential impact of climatic change and associated increase of temperatures on the ORV programmes efficiency. Several hypotheses requesting additional investigation are drawn and discussed in this paper.

L-fucose enhances anti-tumor immunity through modulation of monocyte-derived dendritic cell signaling

Abstract Although immunotherapies have emerged as standard of care for severals cancer types, their efficacy remains limited to ~30% of patients. Limited efficacy has in part been attributed to a lack of infiltrating tumor-suppressive immune cells and overabundance of immunosuppressive cell populations. To combat this problem, extensive research efforts have focused on modulating intratumoral T cells to overcome the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME). While these treatment modalities show promise in preventing intratumoral T cell exhaustion, they fail to provide robust and durable anti-tumor immune responses. For this reason, the targeting of other intratumoral immune subpopulations—particularly dendritic cells (DC)—has become a subject of increased study. The dual activation of anti-tumor and suppression of pro-tumor immune populations is expected to significantly enhance immunotherapeutic outcomes. Recently, our group found that the dietary sugar L-fucose (L-fuc) reduces melanoma tumor growth viaa CD4 +T cell-dependent mechanism. Interestingly, analysis of immune cells in the tumors of L-fuc-treated mice revealed dynamic changes in the DC compartment, predominantly in the monocyte-derived DC subset (moDC). Additionally, myeloid cells treated ± L-fucex vivoexhibited enhanced T cell stimulation, increased neutral fluorescent bait uptake, and altered cytokine production. qPCR-RT analysis revealed that L-fuc affects downstream CD209 signaling, leading to a shift towards an immunostimulatory signature. Together, these data suggest a mechanism to enhance anti-tumor immunity by increasing abundance and immunostimulatory activity of moDCs and supports the use of L-fucose as an immunotherapeutic agent. Supported by funding from Moffitt Cancer Center Skin Cancer Sport Project

Assessment of habitat‐specific competition for oral rabies vaccine baits between raccoons and opossums

AbstractThroughout the eastern United States, the National Rabies Management Program (NRMP) distributes oral rabies vaccine (ORV) baits to manage rabies virus circulation in raccoon (Procyon lotor) populations. The consumption of vaccine baits by non‐target species including Virginia opossums (Didelphis virginiana) may reduce the effectiveness of ORV programs, but competition for baits remains poorly quantified in many areas of the southeastern United States. We distributed placebo ORV baits injected with a biomarker across 4 land cover types (bottomland hardwood, upland pine, riparian, isolated wetland) on the Savannah River Site in South Carolina, USA, 2017–2019. We then trapped and collected whiskers from 247 raccoons and 78 opossums to assess biomarker presence using fluorescent microscopy. Our data revealed greater bait uptake probability by raccoons (estimated x̅ = 0.30, 95% CI = 0.19–0.44) compared to opossums (estimated x̅ = 0.11, 95% CI = 0.05–0.23) across all cover types surveyed. Probability of bait consumption was not affected by cover type or the abundance of raccoons or opossums. Among raccoons, males were more likely to consume baits than females (estimated x̅ = 0.28, 95% CI = 0.17–0.44 for males and 0.14, 95% CI = 0.05–0.31 for females) and probability of consumption increased by 0.08 with each additional day trapped during the 10‐day trapping session. Uptake rates for raccoons were relatively low compared to other studies and not influenced by competition with opossums. These low consumption rates indicate that additional research addressing the roles of baiting season, bait density, and resource selection will be important to maximize ORV bait uptake by target species in these southeastern landscapes.

Factors affecting bait uptake by the grey squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) and the future delivery of oral contraceptives

Context Invasive species negatively affect natural communities and human activities. The grey squirrel is an invasive species in the UK, causing damage to forestry and the decline of the native red squirrel. Oral contraceptives have the potential to reduce numbers of grey squirrels; however, to be effective a sufficient proportion of a population must consume a bait containing contraceptives. Aims The objective of this study was to estimate the efficacy of delivering baits via feeders to grey squirrels and to determine the factors most important to bait uptake. Methods Bait uptake was measured using the bait marker Rhodamine B mixed with 100% hazelnut butter and delivered to grey squirrels via purpose-designed feeders. Different concentrations of Rhodamine B were first trialled on captive grey squirrels for their palatability and detectability in the hair. Bait-uptake field trials were then conducted in 10 UK woodlands by using the preferred concentration. Key results In captive trials, it was found that a concentration of 0.18% Rhodamine B mixed in hazelnut butter was palatable to grey squirrels and that individuals needed to consume only small amounts (<5 g) for it to be detected in the flank hair by using an ultraviolet microscope. It was possible to deliver bait to the majority of grey squirrels in 6 of 10 woods within 4 days. Season, feeder density and squirrel density were important factors affecting bait uptake, with more squirrels consuming bait in summer than in winter and from three feeders per hectare rather than from one per hectare. Conclusions This study demonstrated that baits delivered via feeders can target the majority of grey squirrels in woodland environments. Implications Oral contraceptives could offer a cost-effective tool to reduce numbers of grey squirrels across the UK landscape and mitigate the negative impacts they have on native wildlife and tree health.

Oral rabies vaccination of dogs-Experiences from a field trial in Namibia.

Dog-mediated rabies is responsible for tens of thousands of human deaths annually, and in resource-constrained settings, vaccinating dogs to control the disease at source remains challenging. Currently, rabies elimination efforts rely on mass dog vaccination by the parenteral route. To increase the herd immunity, free-roaming and stray dogs need to be specifically addressed in the vaccination campaigns, with oral rabies vaccination (ORV) of dogs being a possible solution. Using a third-generation vaccine and a standardized egg-flavoured bait, bait uptake and vaccination was assessed under field conditions in Namibia. During this trial, both veterinary staff as well as dog owners expressed their appreciation to this approach of vaccination. Of 1,115 dogs offered a bait, 90% (n = 1,006, 95%CI:91-94) consumed the bait and 72.9% (n = 813, 95%CI:70.2-75.4) of dogs were assessed as being vaccinated by direct observation, while for 11.7% (n = 130, 95%CI:9.9-17.7) the status was recorded as "unkown" and 15.4% (n = 172, 95%CI: 13.4-17.7) were considered as being not vaccinated. Smaller dogs and dogs offered a bait with multiple other dogs had significantly higher vaccination rates, while other factors, e.g. sex, confinement status and time had no influence. The favorable results of this first large-scale field trial further support the strategic integration of ORV into dog rabies control programmes. Given the acceptance of the egg-flavored bait under various settings worldwide, ORV of dogs could become a game-changer in countries, where control strategies using parenteral vaccination alone failed to reach sufficient vaccination coverage in the dog population.

Integrating terrestrial scavenging ecology into contemporary wildlife conservation and management.

Scavenging plays a vital role in maintaining ecosystem health and contributing to ecological functions; however, research in this sub‐discipline of ecology is underutilized in developing and implementing wildlife conservation and management strategies. We provide an examination of the literature and recommend priorities for research where improved understanding of scavenging dynamics can facilitate the development and refinement of applied wildlife conservation and management strategies. Due to the application of scavenging research broadly within ecology, scavenging studies should be implemented for informing management decisions. In particular, a more direct link should be established between scavenging dynamics and applied management programs related to informing pharmaceutical delivery and population control through bait uptake for scavenging species, prevention of unintentional poisoning of nontarget scavenging species, the epidemiological role that scavenging species play in disease dynamics, estimating wildlife mortalities, nutrient transfer facilitated by scavenging activity, and conservation of imperiled facultative scavenging species. This commentary is intended to provide information on the paucity of data in scavenging research and present recommendations for further studies that can inform decisions in wildlife conservation and management. Additionally, we provide a framework for decision‐making when determining how to apply scavenging ecology research for management practices and policies. Due to the implications that scavenging species have on ecosystem health, and their overall global decline as a result of anthropic activities, it is imperative to advance studies in the field of scavenging ecology that can inform applied conservation and management programs.

Uptake of baits by wild badgers: Influences of deployment method, badger age and activity patterns on potential delivery of an oral vaccine

In parts of the United Kingdom and Ireland, the European badger is a wildlife host for Mycobacterium bovis (the causative agent of bovine tuberculosis). Badger vaccination is one management option for reducing disease spread. Vaccination is currently achieved by parenteral vaccination of captured badgers, but an oral vaccine delivered in a bait may provide an additional approach in the future. We conducted two field experiments in wild badger populations to identify factors that influence uptake (% of individuals with evidence of bait consumption) of candidate oral vaccine baits. In both instances, baits containing the biomarker iophenoxic acid (as a proxy for the vaccine) were fed at burrows (setts) associated with badger social groups (study A = 48 groups, study B = 40 groups). Badgers were captured following a period of bait deployment to quantify uptake in relation to age, sex and social group. In addition, groups were allocated different treatments and the bait deployment protocol was varied to identify effects on uptake. Study A tested the effects of season, bait type, bait placement and packaging, while study B investigated the effects of bait quantity and badger activity levels. Overall bait uptake was low (Study A = 24 %, Study B = 37 %) but this varied among treatment groups (range 0–58 %). In both studies, bait uptake was significantly higher in cubs than in adults. Uptake was substantially higher where baits were placed directly into sett entrances (rather than under tiles near setts), and by badgers caught at main setts rather than at outlier setts. Season, bait type and packaging did not influence uptake, while increasing the quantity of bait available increased uptake by cubs but not by adults. Levels of badger activity at setts varied over time (suggesting potential disturbance), but were positively associated with levels of bait uptake.

Taking the bait: Developing a bait delivery system to target free-ranging crocodiles and varanid lizards with a novel conservation strategy.

In tropical Australia, conditioned taste aversion (CTA) can buffer vulnerable native predators from the invasion of a toxic prey species (cane toads, Rhinella marina). Thus, we need to develop methods to deploy aversion‐inducing baits in the field, in ways that maximize uptake by vulnerable species (but not other taxa). We constructed and field‐tested baiting devices, in situ with wild animals. Apparatus were set next to waterbodies and baited concurrently at multiple locations (over water, water's edge, and on the bank). Baits were checked and replaced twice daily during the trial; remote cameras recorded visitation by native predators. Bait longevity was compared at sun‐exposed and shaded locations over 12 h. The strength required to remove baits from apparatus was measured in varanids and crocodiles. The device promoted high rates of bait uptake by freshwater crocodiles (47% baits consumed), varanid lizards (19% baits consumed), and non‐target taxa (34% baits consumed). Targeting specific predators can be achieved by manipulating bait location and time of deployment, as well as the force required to dislodge the bait. Crocodiles were best targeted with over‐water baits, whereas varanid lizards preferred baits located at the edges of waterbodies. When testing bait longevity in ambient conditions, during the daytime baits desiccated fully within 12 h, and faster in the sun than in the shade. Based on studies using captive animals, the “pulling force” strength of reptilian predators scaled with body size and was greater in crocodiles than in varanid lizards. We present the first conservation baiting protocol designed specifically for reptiles. Our results demonstrate the feasibility of widespread and taxon‐specific deployment of aversion‐inducing baits to buffer the impacts of invasive cane toads, and our methods are applicable (with modification) to other research and management programs globally.

Estimation of Bait Uptake by Badgers, Using Non-invasive Methods, in the Perspective of Oral Vaccination Against Bovine Tuberculosis in a French Infected Area.

Although France is officially declared free of bovine tuberculosis (TB), Mycobacterium bovis infection is still observed in several regions in cattle and wildlife, including badgers (Meles meles). In this context, vaccinating badgers should be considered as a promising strategy for the reduction in M. bovis transmission between badgers and other species, and cattle in particular. An oral vaccine consisting of live Bacille Calmette–Guérin (BCG) contained in bait is currently under assessment for badgers, for which testing bait deployment in the field and assessing bait uptake by badgers are required. This study aimed to evaluate the bait uptake by badgers and determine the main factors influencing uptake in a TB-infected area in Burgundy, north-eastern France. The baits were delivered at 15 different setts located in the vicinity of 13 pastures within a TB-infected area, which has been subject to intense badger culling over the last decade. Pre-baits followed by baits containing a biomarker (Rhodamine B; no BCG vaccine) were delivered down sett entrances in the spring (8 days of pre-baiting and 4 days of baiting) and summer (2 days of pre-baiting and 2 days of baiting) of 2018. The consumption of the marked baits was assessed by detecting fluorescence, produced by Rhodamine B, in hair collected in hair traps positioned at the setts and on the margins of the targeted pastures. Collected hairs were also genotyped to differentiate individuals using 24 microsatellites markers and one sex marker. Bait uptake was estimated as the proportion of badgers consuming baits marked by the biomarker over all the sampled animals (individual level), per badger social group, and per targeted pasture. We found a bait uptake of 52.4% (43 marked individuals of 82 genetically identified) at the individual level and a mean of 48.9 and 50.6% at the social group and pasture levels, respectively. The bait uptake was positively associated with the presence of cubs (social group level) and negatively influenced by the intensity of previous trapping (social group and pasture levels). This study is the first conducted in France on bait deployment in a badger population of intermediate density after several years of intensive culling. The results are expected to provide valuable information toward a realistic deployment of oral vaccine baits to control TB in badger populations.