Bainite Transformation Kinetics Research Articles

Modeling the influence of bainite transformation on the flow behavior of steel using a macroscale finite element analysis

This study comprehensively investigates the kinetics of bainitic ferrite transformation in steel alloys by integrating experimental results, finite element analysis, and thermodynamic modeling. Using a dilatometer and Gleeble tests, empirical data were acquired to calibrate the Bhadeshia and Hensel-Spittel models, forming the basis for subsequent finite element simulations. Owing to the high importance of temperature in bainite transformation, the accuracy of the predicted temperature fields was validated precisely against experimental measurements, confirming the reliability of the methodology. A modified Bhadeshia model was proposed incorporating the influence of the applied shear stress on the activation energy, thereby emphasizing the temperature-dependent Cstress coefficient. The electron backscatter diffraction results validate the finite element model, and further exploration reveals the implications for fracture patterns and density changes due to bainitic transformation. This study contributes to a nuanced understanding of bainitic ferrite kinetics, offering valuable insights for alloy design and optimization under various thermomechanical conditions, and paving the way for advanced research on phase transformation kinetics and material behavior.

Influence of prior austenite grain size on martensite/austenite constituents in low-carbon bainitic steel

We elucidated here the influence of prior austenite grain (PAG) size on bainitic transformation products from the perspective of kinetics. The refinement of PAGs provided more sites for grain boundary nucleation and accelerated bainitic transformation kinetics. M/A constituents were also refined in refined PAGs with a higher carbon concentration, contributing to higher stability and even formation of retained austenite. The smaller M/A constituents exhibit stronger variant selection and localized strain.

Effects of Silicon and Aluminum Alloying on Phase Transformation and Microstructure Evolution in Fe–0.2C–2.5Mn Steel: Insights from Continuous–Cooling–Transformation and Time–Temperature–Transformation Diagrams

The impact of silicon and aluminum on phase transformation behavior, particularly bainite, and microstructure evolution in Fe–0.2C–2.5Mn steel are presented. Continuous–cooling–transformation (CCT) and time–temperature–transformation (TTT) diagrams are determined experimentally. An aluminum extended empirical formula is introduced to estimate the martensite start temperature (Ms) with a thorough assessment of existing formulae. Results show that aluminum significantly increases Ms and has a stronger influence on promoting ferritic microstructures than silicon. During continuous cooling, alongside bainite, formation of Widmanstätten structures is induced in aluminum‐alloyed steel at higher cooling rates due to increased prior austenite grain size. Silicon decelerates bainite transformation kinetics by enhancing austenite's chemical stability through carbon enrichment via preventing carbide precipitation and by strengthening austenite against displacive phase transformation via solid solution hardening. Although aluminum has similar effects, incubation time is shortened during isothermal treatment because of the increased driving force, which overcompensates for the retardation effects. A finer carbide‐free bainitic microstructure is achieved in aluminum‐alloyed steel with more pronounced film‐like retained austenite (RA) formation and superior carbon enrichment, improving RA stability and suppressing martensite–austenite island formation. Finally, with the proposed formula, an accurate approximation to experimental Ms is accomplished.

Impacts of near-Ms austempering treatment on microstructure evolution and bainitic transformation kinetics of a medium Mn steel

Impacts of near-Ms austempering treatment on microstructure evolution and bainitic transformation kinetics of a medium Mn steel

Effects of carbon concentration and transformation temperature on incomplete transformation and crystallography of low-carbon bainitic steel

A close relationship exists between the crystallographic characteristics of a bainitic matrix and formation of martensite/austenite (M/A) constituents. In this work, the isothermal transformation kinetics and crystallographic characteristics of low-carbon bainitic (LCB) steel were investigated to elucidate the formation mechanism of M/A constituents and twin-related V1/V2 variant pairs (Σ3 boundaries). The formation of M/A constituents depends on the bainitic transformation kinetics, which are influenced by the carbon concentration and isothermal temperature. An increase in the carbon concentration or transformation temperature promotes the formation of blocky M/A constituents by increasing the activation energy of the grain boundary and autocatalytic nucleation processes. In addition, increasing the carbon concentration or lowering the transformation temperature increases the strength of the austenite phase and promotes autocatalytic nucleation, thereby producing more twin-related V1/V2 variant pairs. Therefore, the increase in the carbon concentration increases the number of twin-related V1/V2 variant pairs while also causing the formation of blocky M/A constituents. To overcome this limitation, a novel heat treatment process design is proposed that can significantly eliminate blocky M/A constituents and generate high-density twin-related V1/V2 variant pairs.

Effect of prior austenite grain size on austenite reversion, bainite transformation and mechanical properties of Fe-2Mn-0.2C steel

To elucidate the response of austenite reversion and subsequent bainite transformation behavior to the prior austenite grain (PAG) size, the transformation kinetics and amount of reverted austenite in the intercritical region, the subsequent bainite transformation kinetics, and the tensile properties were investigated by dilatometers, scanning electron microscopy, electron backscatter diffraction, transmission electron microscopy, and the mechanical tests. The results show that, when annealed at 730 °C, fine-grained specimens exhibit faster reverted austenite transformation rate than coarse-grained specimens due to the presence of more PAG boundaries. As the intercritical temperature rises to 760 °C, more intragranular globular austenite forms in the coarse-grained specimen, which accelerates the reverted austenite transformation rate. Compared to fine-grained specimens, coarse-grained specimens exhibit faster bainite transformation and higher amount of bainitic ferrite. The microstructure after austempering consists of intercritical ferrite, bainitic ferrite, RA and fresh martensite. With increasing the austempering time, more bainitic ferrite is formed and the amount of RA and fresh martensite decreases. With increasing the austempering time, the increase in the amount of bainitic ferrite leads to an increase in the yield strength, while the decrease in the amount of RA leads to a decrease in the elongation. Moreover, compared with coarse-grained specimens, the finer microstructure in fine-grained specimens improves yield and tensile strengths, while higher amount of RA contributes to larger uniform and total elongations.

A novel quenching strategy for enhanced mechanical behaviour homogeneity of large-size parts via bainite kinetics acceleration: Experimental and numerical investigation

Quenching is a key process for many large-size parts in manufacturing. However, property difference between the surface and the center of the part after quenching is amplified as its part size increases because of phase transition difference. As a mesothermal phase, bainite is potential to reduce above difference through appropriate microstructure regulation. A novel quenching strategy combining the advantages of spraying schedule and phase transformation characteristic is proposed for large-size parts here to get enhanced mechanical behaviour homogeneity. In this novel strategy, an additional holding at 700 °C for 600 s was used before traditional quenching cooling process during spraying of wheel block part. The results after novel treatment shown that the differences/gaps in strength and hardness between the surface and the center was reduced, and simultaneously the strength and toughness matching of overall part was improved than 20 %. The mechanism of as-treated process was expounded in detail by bainite transformation kinetics. This additional holding can accelerate subsequent bainite formation, increase bainite volume fraction, and result in better homogeneity. These bainite with refining substructure is good to advanced strength and toughness matching. The FE model systematically considering thermal, phase transformation based on phase kinetics, and property were performed and its positive influence with new strategy on large-size parts were verified.

Experimental and Modelling Research on the Effect of Prior Ferrite on Bainitic Transformation in Medium-Carbon Bainitic Steel

In this study, we investigate the impact of prior ferrite on the bainite transformation kinetics and microstructure of medium-carbon steel interrupted by an intercritical annealing (IAA) process. It was found that the incubation time and completion time decreased from 687 s and 6018 s to 20 s and 4680 s, with the volume fraction of ferrite increasing from 9.5% to 28.6%, while the maximum transformation rate increased from 00271 μm/s to 0.0436 μm/s. The ferrite/austenite interface is introduced, and the nucleation sites are increased to accelerate the subsequent bainite transformation due to the formation of prior ferrite. However, there is a competitive relationship between the number and activation energy of bainite nucleation. According to the experimental results and theoretical calculations, the activation energy of the bainite transformation in the medium-carbon bainite steel decreases gradually with an increase in the volume fraction of prior ferrite.

Ultra-Fine Bainite in Medium-Carbon High-Silicon Bainitic Steel.

The effects of austenitizing and austempering temperatures on the bainite transformation kinetics and the microstructural and mechanical properties of a medium-carbon high-silicon ultra-fine bainitic steel were investigated via dilatometric measurements, microstructural characterization and mechanical tests. It is demonstrated that the optimum austenitizing temperature exists for 0.3 wt.%C ultra-fine bainitic steel. Although the finer austenite grain at 950 °C provides more bainite nuclei site and form finer bainitic ferrite plates, the lower dislocation density in plates and the higher volume fraction of the retained austenite reduces the strength and impact toughness of ultra-fine steel. When the austenitizing temperature exceeds 1000 °C, the true thickness of bainitic ferrite plates and the volume fraction of blocky retained austenite in the bainite microstructure increase significantly with the increases in austenitizing temperature, which do harm to the plasticity and impact toughness. The effect of austempering temperature on the transformation behavior and microstructural morphology of ultra-fine bainite is greater than that of austenitizing temperature. The prior martensite, formed when the austempering temperature below Ms, can refine the bainitic ferrite plates and improve the strength and impact toughness. However, the presence of prior martensite divides the untransformed austenite and inhibits the growth of bainite sheaves, thus prolonging the finishing time of bainite transformation. In addition, prior martensite also strengthens the stability of untransformed austenite though carbon partition and enhances the volume fraction of blocky retained austenite, which reduces the plasticity of ultra-fine bainitic steel. According to the experimental results, the optimum austempering process for 0.3 wt. %C ultra-fine bainitic steel is through austenitization at 1000 °C and austempering at 340 °C.

Effect of prior martensite on bainitic transformation of high Si hypereutectoid steel

The paper discusses the effect of prior martensite on the bainitic transformation of a high Si hypereutectoid steel. The research uses a combination of experimental techniques, high-resolution dilatometry and X-ray diffraction analysis, and theoretical calculations to investigate the impact of martensite on the transformation kinetics and microstructure evolution. The study shows that the presence of martensite, regardless of the amount, accelerates the bainitic transformation, particularly in the early and fastest stages, and at higher isothermal transformation temperatures. At lower temperatures, the preconditioning of the austenite prior to the bainitic transformation is such that its mechanical stability increases to the point where the whole transformation is inhibited. It is also suggested that the formation of cementite due to the tempering of martensite at the isothermal stage controls the final fraction of bainitic ferrite. The findings provide valuable insights into the role of prior martensite in bainitic transformation kinetics and microstructure development.

Effect of applied stress on bainite transformation, microstructure, and properties of 15CrMo steel

The effect of external stress on the isothermal bainite transformation kinetics and microstructure of 15CrMo steel was studied using dilatometer, optical microscopes (OM), electron back-scatter diffraction (EBSD), scanning electron microscopes (SEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD). The results show that the additional mechanical driving force provided by the external stress promotes the transformation of bainite, resulting an increase volume fraction of bainite-ferrite (BF) and causing the BF laths to become slender. The application of external stress can also induce selective orientation during the bainite transformation process, and the orientation relationship between the prior austenite and the BF under stress is closer to the Kurdjumov-Sachs (K-S) relationship. There is also an incomplete transformation of bainite transformation under stress. At the same time, the Vickers hardness of 15CrMo steel would increase after applying external stress. The mechanical driving forces calculations demonstrate that when tensile stress and compressive stress are of similar magnitudes, they provide comparable mechanical driving forces. As a result, they exert similar effects on the kinetics of bainite transformation, leading to no discernible differences in the resulting bainite microstructure.

Influence of Q&P-Parameters and Al-Content on the Microstructural Evolution of Lean-Medium-Mn-Steels

Abstract This report investigates the impact of different heat treatment parameters and varying Al-contents on the microstructure of Quenching & Partitioning (Q&P) steels. Therefore, three lean-medium-Mn-steels with Al-contents between 0.3 and 0.9 wt-% underwent heat treatments according to Quenching & Partitioning regimes. For comparison, the steels were subjected to a transformation induced plasticity (TRIP) aided-bainitic-ferrite (TBF) process. In both cases, the samples were fully austenitized at 900 °C for 120 s, using dilatometry. For the Quenching & Partitioning process, the quenching temperature (TQ) ranged from 210 °C to 330 °C, while the transformation induced plasticity (TRIP) aided-bainitic-ferrite samples were cooled to 360 °C. Afterwards, the specimen were re-heated to the partitioning temperature (TP) of 400 °C and isothermally held for partitioning times (tp) of 40, 120 and 200 s. Subsequently, these steels were analyzed with regard to their phase fractions and hardness. The results indicated that in the Quenching & Partitioning process, the microstructure was primarily influenced by the partitioning temperature (TQ), while partitioning times (tp) played a minor role due to the time-independent martensitic transformation during quenching. In general, rising quenching temperature (TQ) led to an increase in retained austenite (RA) fraction. In the transformation induced plasticity (TRIP) aided-bainitic-ferrite (TBF) process, a substantial influence of partitioning times (tp) was found, which can be explained by the kinetics of the isothermal bainitic transformation. Regardless of the heat treatment concept, an increasing Al-content contributed to elevated retained austenite contents.

Effects of two-step austempering processes on the wear resistance and fatigue lifetime of high-carbon nanostructured bainitic steel

The previous research on two-step austempering processes have been mainly focused on the bainitic transformation kinetics, with few details the relationships between the parameters of two-step austempering process and the wear properties and fatigue lifetime. In this paper, the effects of two-step austempering process on wear resistance and fatigue life of high carbon nano-bainite steel were investigated. The results show that the first-step bainite with high volume fraction prolongs the total bainite transformation time. The two-step austempering samples contain finer bainitic ferrite plate and higher volume fraction of retained austenite, as well as resent excellent hardnesses, tensile properties, wear resistance and fatigue lifetime. In particular, the wear resistance of the 50%-290 °C sample is better than that of the 210 °C sample, this is caused by the transformation of the high fraction of retained austenite in the two-step austempering samples into hard martensite and the microstructure refinement zone that forms on the surface of the sample during the wear process. The 50%-290 °C sample have better fatigue properties at low total strain amplitudes (0.7% and 0.8%). When the total strain amplitude is 0.7%, the fatigue life of the 50%-290 °C sample is 57.5% higher than that of the 210 °C sample, which is because of the higher yield strength and finer microstructure of the 50%-290 °C sample. These results support the later study of controlling two-step austempering process for high-carbon nanostructured steels.

Laser Powder Bed Fusion Fabrication of a Novel Carbide-Free Bainitic Steel: The Possibilities and a Comparative Study with the Conventional Alloy

A newly developed medium-carbon carbide-free bainitic steel was fabricated for the first time utilizing the laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF) technique. Process parameters were optimized, and a high density of 99.8% was achieved. The impact of austempering heat treatment on the bainite morphology and transformation kinetics was investigated by high-resolution microstructural analysis (SEM, TEM, and EDS) and dilatometric analysis, and results were compared with conventionally produced counterparts. Faster kinetics and finer microstructures in the L-PBF specimens were found as a consequence of the as-built microstructure, characterized by fine grains and high dislocation density. However, a bimodal distribution of bainitic ferrite plate thickness (average value 60 nm and 200 nm, respectively) was found at prior melt pool boundaries resulting from carbon depletion at such sites.

Analysis of the Kinetics of Isothermal Bainitic Transformation in Alloy Steels

Analysis of the Kinetics of Isothermal Bainitic Transformation in Alloy Steels

Effects of above- or below-AC3 austenitization on bainite transformation behavior, microstructure and mechanical properties of carbide-free bainitic steel

The isothermal bainite transformation kinetics, microstructure, crystallography and mechanical properties of a carbide-free bainitic steel, subjected to pre-quenching treatment, followed by austenitization at various temperatures above or below AC3 and then by above-MS austempering, have been investigated via dilatometric measurements, microstructural characterization and mechanical tests. The results show that, as the austenitization temperature decreases from 980 °C to 860 °C (above AC3), bainite transformation first decelerates and then accelerates; this is primarily a result of the competition between the availability of parent austenite grain (PAG) boundaries as nucleation sites for bainite transformation and the shear resistance of bainite growth, both of which increase with decreasing the PAG size but play a reverse role in bainite transformation rate. Further decreasing the austenitization temperature down to 820 °C and 800 °C (below AC3) even more notably accelerates bainite transformation and shortens the transformation completion time, since the intercritical ferrite (or tempered martensite), which is formed in the intercritical region, favor the nucleation of initial bainitic laths. The resulting microstructure after austempering is composed of bainite, retained austenite and intercritical ferrite and/or fresh martensite, the feature of which depends on the austenitizing temperature below or above AC3. Below-AC3 austenitization largely refines the microstructure and decreases the amount of large, brittle fresh martensite/austenite blocks, mainly attributed to the synergetic role of the refinement of austenite grains and pre-existence of intercritical ferrite prior to austempering. In addition, the intercritical ferrite and its adjacent bainitic laths have nearly the same crystallographic orientation and belong to the same block. As compared with above-AC3 austenitization, below-AC3 austenitization shows large increases in elongation, especially for specimens subjected to shorter time austempering, despite some decreases in yield and tensile strengths.

Study on the Influence of Pre-Formed Phase on Accelerating Bainitic Transformation

Bainitic transformation goes through three stages: incubation period, nucleation, and growth. The long transformation time is not conducive to industrial production, which restricts its development. Therefore, research on accelerating bainitic transformation is based on the situation of energy saving and efficiency saving. The methods to accelerate bainitic transformation include the control of alloy elements, heat treatment control, etc. This paper focuses on the influence of the pre-formed phase on the kinetics of accelerated bainite transformation. Combined with existing research and experiments, it clarifies the influence of pre-formed ferrite, pre-formed martensite, and precipitated second-phase particles on the kinetics of bainitic transformation. Moreover, it clarifies the characteristics of bainitic transformation in terms of microstructure characterization.

Accelerating bainite transformation by concurrent pearlite formation in a medium Mn steel: Experiments and modelling

Bainite transformation has yet to be utilized and even thoroughly studied in medium Mn steels. Here, we investigate the isothermal bainite transformation in a 10Mn steel at 450 °C experimentally and theoretically, focusing on the effect of dislocations introduced by warm deformation. We show that the bainite transformation in the studied medium Mn steel exhibits extremely sluggish kinetics (on a time scale of days), concurrent with the pearlite formation. The introduced dislocations can significantly accelerate bainite transformation kinetics while also facilitating the pearlite reaction. This is likely the first report on the simultaneous occurrence of these two solid-state reactions in medium Mn steels. With respect to the roles of dislocations in the acceleration of bainite transformation observed in this work, we propose a new ‘carbon depletion mechanism’, in which dislocations-stimulated pearlite formation makes a twofold contribution: facilitating the formation of bainitic ferrite sub-units to further enhance the autocatalytic effect and preventing the carbon enrichment in the remaining austenite. On this basis, a physical model is developed to quantitatively understand the bainite transformation kinetics considering the effect of concurrent pearlite formation, revealing good agreements between model descriptions and experiment results. Our findings, herein, offer fundamental insights into the bainite transformation in medium Mn steels and uncover a previously unidentified role played by introduced dislocations in influencing the kinetics of bainite formation, which may guide its future application in manipulating microstructure for the development of advanced high-strength steels.

Bainite transformation under the effect of large stress in a carbide-free bainite steel

The effects of large stress on bainite transformation and microstructure were investigated by dilatometry, SEM and EBSD. The results show that the effect of large stress on bainite transformation includes two parts: mechanical driving force and prior deformation. A new finding is that bainite transformation is inhibited by large stress when the negative effect of prior deformation surpasses the positive effect of mechanical driving force. In addition, the bainite transformation kinetics model established by van Bohemen and Sietsma is modified to describe the bainite transformation under the effect of stress more accurately. Moreover, significant variant selection occurs under the effect of large stress, but the selected bainite variants in adjacent austenite twins are different. Furthermore, the hardness of the steel increases with the stress because of the increase in dislocation density and martensite amount.

Carbon Enrichment of Austenite during Ferrite – bainite Transformation in Low-alloy-steel

The bainitic transformation kinetics and carbon enrichment of austenite during isothermal holding at 723–923 K were investigated for an Fe-0.1mass%C-0.5mass%Si-2.0mass%Mn alloy. The transformation progressed rapidly until approximately 50 s, after which transformation stasis was observed at 823 K. The carbon concentration of austenite increased as the transformation proceeded, and showed an almost constant value during stasis. It reached approximately 0.45–0.50% at 823 K, which corresponds to the carbon concentration at the T0’ composition with an additional strain energy of 100 J/mol associated with the transformation. After stasis, a slight increase in the ferrite or bainitic ferrite fraction was observed. The carbon concentration of austenite also increased and reached approximately 0.60%, clearly exceeding the carbon concentration at the T0 composition. These results imply that at the first stage, the bainite transformation occurs and shows the incomplete transformation, following which at the second stage, diffusional ferrite transformation proceeds. The additional strain energy associated with the transformation calculated from the carbon concentration at stasis due to the incomplete bainite transformation tends to decrease as the holding temperature increases. This indicates that strain relaxation due to the transformation occurred at higher holding temperatures.