Baia Mare Area Research Articles

Rare Earth Elements Transfer from Soil to Vegetables and Health Risks Associated with Vegetable Consumption in a Former Mining Area

Rare earth elements (REEs) and 18 other elements in the vegetables (carrot, parsley, cabbage, potato, onion) and soils from two villages near tailings management facilities in the Baia Mare area, NW Romania, were measured. The soil-to-plant transfer and the health risks posed by the consumption of these vegetables were also assessed. The pseudo-total concentrations of elements varied widely in the soil and vegetables, with the lowest concentrations being found for Ta (2.1 µg/kg) and the highest for Fe (9219 mg/kg). The concentration of total light REEs (LREEs) was considerably higher than that of heavy REEs (HREEs). The percentages of available elements were <20% of the pseudo-total concentration, except for Zn, Cd, and Pb, where the available fractions were much higher. Generally, the soil-to-plant transfer factors decreased in the following order: parsley > onion > cabbage > carrot > potato, and varied from element to element. The LREEs were less absorbed than the HREEs in all investigated vegetable species. Pearson correlations revealed strong positive correlations between the lanthanides, except for Eu, in the soil and vegetables. No important health risks following the consumption of vegetables were found for REEs, the estimated daily intake of REEs through vegetable consumption being much lower than the acceptable daily intake.

New data regarding the identification of critical raw materials recoverable from raw, processed and the waste mining industry materials from Romania.

Several EU initiatives focused on renewable energy, sustainable infrastructure and green transport require a sustainable supply of a wide range of raw materials. The increase in the population and, implicitly, the increasing demand for necessary resources led to accelerated degradation of the environment, a pressing issue which the contemporary world faces. The mining activities produced huge amounts of waste, which may now become a potential secondary raw materials source that offer the potential to extract critical mineral elements of current interest. This study is intended as a historical literature data processing combined with recent analyses according to modern test methods to confirm the presence of selected critical raw materials (CRMs). The aim of the work was an integrated approach to identify the presence of Ga, In, Ge, Bi, Co and Te in ore, ore concentrates, tailing ponds and ore dumps from some Romanian historical mining regions: Apuseni Mountains (5 deposits) and the northern part of the Eastern Carpathians (Baia Mare area 2 deposits and Fundu Moldovei area 1 deposit). The consulted literature data highlighted that the tailing ponds and dumps from Romania contain a noticeable quantity of secondary resources of critical elements, respectively, an average of 2172mg/kg Bi, 1737mg/kg Co, 691mg/kg Ga, 667mg/kg In, 74mg/kg Ge and 108mg/kg Te in ore and 1331mg/kg Ga, 1093mg/kg Co, 180mg/kg Bi, 72mg/kg In and 35mg/kg Ge in tailings. The overall statistics for the 2008-2018 period show a decrease in the amount of hazardous waste produced by the extractive industry in Romania. The older literature data (from about 50years ago) for the investigated deposits was confirmed by the laboratory analysis of selected CRMs from several samples collected from known former and current mining activities. Furthermore, the optical microscopy investigations coupled with modern electronic microscopy and quantitative and semi-quantitative techniques have provided further details regarding the sample nature and constituents. High levels of Bi (35,490mg/kg) and Sb (15,930mg/kg) were determined in samples from Băița Bihor and Coranda-Hondol ore deposits (Apuseni Mountains), and the presence of some rare elements such as Te was also detected. The recovery of critical elements present in the mining waste significantly contributes to the transition to a circular economy that is essential for the development of a sustainable and resource-efficient economy. This study enables future research focused on the recovery of critical elements present in the mining waste, with benefits for the environment, economy and society.

Assessment of Surface Water Quality in the Baia Mare Area, Romania

Baia Mare area represents one of the most important mining areas of Romania. Although the mining activities carried out here are currently inactive (since 2012), they generated residual pollution that negatively influences all the environmental factors. The aim of the study is to evaluation of the quality of surface water from the vicinity of the city of Baia Mare, Romania. The surface water samples, collected in two distinct years (2021 and 2022), were analyzed to determine the concentration of heavy metals (Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Zn, Pb, Fe, Mn, and As) in order to establish the degree of contamination and the water quality through heavy metal evaluation index (HEI), heavy metal pollution index (HPI), and water quality index (WQI). The pH and the content of cations (Ca, Mg, Na, K) and anions (HCO3−, SO42−, Cl−) were also determined for complex characterization. The results showed that the water in the area had a high degree of pollution with high concentrations of Cr: 0.165–1.57 mgL−1, Ni: 0.01–0.718 mgL−1, and Cu: 0.036–0.195 mgL−1. The pollution indices showed an average level of heavy metal pollution for the collected surface water samples. The quality index demonstrated that all surface water samples in the study area were unfit for irrigation and drinking due to poor and very poor water quality.

Assessment of Soil Quality Status and the Ecological Risk in the Baia Mare, Romania Area

Industrial activities in the Baia Mare, Romania area have generated strong pollution, and the impact on soil quality in the neighboring areas of the city remains unclear. The aim of the research is to investigate samples of soil from Baia Mare in order to determine the quality of the soil and also the ecological risk of the soil. This study presents among the first studies using the ecological risk assessment methodology on the soil from the Baia Mare area and aims to serve as scientific support for future studies and research. Evaluation of the soil quality state was performed by determining the physical-chemical characteristics of the soil (pH, texture, structure, and concentration of metals). Evaluation of the anthropic activity from the studied areas was conducted by determining the pollution indices: Cf; Cd, PLI, Er, and PERI. The results of this study indicate that the surface soils have very high concentrations of metals (Cd: 3.5–14.4 mg kg−1; Cu: 9.4–361.5 mg kg−1; Pb: 29.7–1973 mg kg−1), with exceedances of the limit values established in the Romanian legislation. Results regarding the degree of contamination, the PLI pollution load index (1.3–14.9), and the PERI potential ecological risk index (733.9–4686) indicate that soils in the studied area have a very high degree of pollution.

Hydrothermal Sphalerites from Ore Deposits of Baia Mare Area

Sphalerite is an abundant mineral in the hydrothermal deposits from the Baia Mare and Oaș areas (northwestern Romania). Sphalerite samples were analyzed with an electron probe microanalyzer and Raman spectroscopy. The obtained results indicated different amounts of Fe in the various deposits from the Baia Mare and Oaș areas. The sphalerites from Baia Sprie, Cavnic, Iba, Turț Penigher, and Breiner have a low Fe wt.% content. High Fe wt.% contents are at Herja and partly at Ghezuri and Nistru (copper stage) where sphalerite is associated with pyrrhotite. The correlation between iron and zinc from sphalerites is strongly negative. The negative correlation shows that iron is the main element that replaces zinc in the sphalerite structure. The manganese content of sphalerites in the Baia Mare and Oaș area is up to 0.84 wt.%. The cadmium content is quite uniform in the Baia Mare and Oaș area with contents ranging from 0.01 to 0.72 wt.%. The Fe content of sphalerites is an important indicator of the physico-chemical conditions of deposit formation because it is a function of temperature, pressure, and sulfur fugacity.

Dietary Metals (Pb, Cu, Cd, Zn) Exposure and Associated Health Risks in Baia Mare Area, Northwestern Romania

This study estimated the non-carcinogenic health risk of Pb, Cu, Cd, Zn via dietary intake in the urban and rural areas of Baia Mare city, northwestern Romania, a former mining area. A total of 230 food items grouped in ten food categories (meat and animal organs, meat-derived products, animal fat, eggs, dairy, bread, corn flour, potato, vegetables, fruits) and 32 water samples were collected and analyzed for Pb, Cu, Cd and Zn using atomic absorption spectrometric method. The human health risk assessment through dietary exposure was evaluated by calculating the estimated daily intake of metals, the Target Hazard Quotients (THQ) and the Total Target Hazard Quotients (TTHQ) for normal daily consumption in adults. The average daily intakes of Pb, Cd and Zn were higher than the Tolerable Daily Intake (TDI) reference value for urban and rural residents, which showed that there was a potentially high risk of ingestion of food and water. The average daily intake of Cu with food and drinking water was lower than the corresponding TDI value, which indicated that Cu intake was not a potential hazard to the health of residents in the study areas. The individual target hazard quotients, calculated for food consumption in urban area decreased in the following order: Cd>Cu>Pb>Zn, and in rural area: Pb>Cd>Cu>Zn, having values higher than 1 for Pb and Cd in the rural area and approximately equal to 1 for Cd (urban) and Cu (rural), indicating non-carcinogenic adverse health effects. The TTHQs for the two areas (urban and rural) were 2.934 and 5.164, respectively, established cumulative adverse effects of metals. The results showed that vegetables, potato and bread were the main sources of metal intake from foodstuff for adults, but fruit, water and meat were secondary contributors.

Effects of Long-Term exposure to Heavy Metals upon Rhizosphere Bacteria from Baia Mare Area (Maramureş County, Romania)

The aim of this study was to investigate the extent of heavy metal (HM) pollution and its effect on microorganisms from rhizosphere soil in Baia Mare area (Maramureş County, Romania). Two sites with different contamination degrees were included in the study: one with a long history of mining activities and one within a drinking water safeguard zone. Rhizosphere soil samples were characterized with respect to physico-chemical parameters and the Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn contents. Native bacteria were investigated for HM tolerance and biofilm formation under toxic exposure by the microdilution assay. The most resistant strains were identified and the minimum inhibitory concentrations for HMs were determined. Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn exceeded the intervention threshold in Bozânta tailings site, while Pb content exceeded the intervention level within the area of the drinking water treatment plant. Cd showed a very high potential ecological risk in Bozânta area. The long-term exposure to HMs contributed to the selection of HM-tolerant and weakly adherent strains. Biofouling was significantly reduced under the influence of copper ions. Arthrobacter, Rhodococcus and Acidovorax strains with exceptional resistant profiles were isolated from the tailings site, indicating the important role of native microorganisms in rhizosphere ecosystems of contaminated sites.

Valentinite and Colloform Sphalerite in Epithermal Deposits from Baia Mare Area, Eastern Carpathians

Valentinite forms through the alteration of stibnite in sulphide deposits. Colloform sphalerite is a widespread mineral in low-temperature deposits, particularly those of the Mississippi-Valley type. We identified valentinite and colloform sphalerite in hydrothermal deposits occurring in the Baia Mare area. The Baia Mare metallogenic district of Neogene age occurs in the northwestern part of the Neogene volcanic chain within the Eastern Carpathians. The Neogene volcanism from Baia Mare area is related to the subduction processes of the East European plate under two microplates, Alcapa and Tisza-Dacia/Tisia, in the post-collisional compressive phase. We have identified valentinite in the Dealul Crucii and Baia Sprie deposits, associated with other epithermal minerals, in the absence of the stibnite. Valentinite is deposited in the final phase of the epithermal process after calcite and manganese-bearing calcite. Micro-Raman and microprobe determinations indicate the presence of valentinite. The formula of valentinite is close to stoichiometric Me2O3 and contains small amounts of tin as an antimony substituent. Colloform sphalerite was identified in the Baia Sprie ore deposit associated with minerals formed in the final epithermal phase. It was deposited on idiomorphic crystals of stibnite, which it corrodes. Its structure and an alternate banding, exhibited on the nano-/microscale, were identified by optical microscopy, SEM (scanning electron microscopy), and BSE (backscattered electron microscopy) imaging. These structures are typical for colloform sphalerite and suggest a genesis due to episodic precipitation. The spherical nano/micro-particles (nodules) are characteristic of the colloform sphalerite from Baia Sprie. Raman analysis indicates the presence of a colloform sphalerite with low iron content. The typical diffraction lines for sphalerite were identified in X-ray diffraction: 3.118 Å (111), 1.907 Å (220), 1.627 Å (311). Microprobe analysis certifies the presence of sphalerite with the stoichiometric formula close to ZnS. Iron content is low (0%–0.0613%), but Sb (0.7726%–2.6813%), Pb (0.56%–1.1718%), Bi (0%–0.1227%) are also present. The negative correlation between Zn and Sb suggests the simultaneous deposition from the same epithermal fluids. Valentinite and colloform sphalerite were formed at low temperatures (100–150 °C) at the end of the epithermal process.

Assessment of Heavy Metals Concentration in Soil and Plants from Baia Mare Area, NW Romania

The results showed diverse patterns of Pb, Cd, Zn, Co, Cu, Ni, Mn, Cr and Sn, in case of Pb in all areas exceeded the M.L.A (average 32.59 mg/kg while M.L.A. = 20 mg/kg), other elements shows high concentration that exceed the M.L.A. for Ferneziu and Săsar area. In the case of plant material also records exceedances of the M.L.A for Ferneziu and Săsar area, but in the Dura area there were no overtaking of M.L.A.

A DEEP DIVE INTO THE CHRONIC AIR POLLUTION REALITY IN BAIA MARE: PART II: AIR QUALITY EVOLUTION BETWEEN 1995 – 2006

Baia Mare, the former mining and metallurgical industry capital of Romania, is one of the most problematic areas in the country in terms of historical pollution and its consequences. The present paper, as the second part of a complex three-piece study, aims to analyze the air quality evolution in Baia Mare between 1995 and 2006. In the previous piece, the first of this series, we provided an overview of the sources of historical air pollution in Baia Mare. In the third and final scientific paper, we will analyze the effects of this chronic pollution on human health. This article constitutes an analysis of the air quality in Baia Mare, representing a historical investigation of this important environmental issue in the city’s area. Our work updates and expands the body of information provided by previous papers on the topic of environmental pollution in Baia Mare, its purpose being to highlight the chronic air pollution with sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, ammonia, suspended and sedimentary particulate matters, as well as heavy metals between 1995 and 2006. As a result of the above, it can be concluded that the air quality in Baia Mare in 1995 – 2006 was especially critical due to high concentrations of particulate matters presenting high lead and cadmium content, as well as high sulphur dioxide concentrations. These pollutants were generated by mining and metallurgical units (Remin, Phoenix/Cuprom and Romplumb Corporations), alongside other factors: tailing dumps and tailing ponds in the Baia Mare area, where the particulates were spread around by the air currents; industrial and residential heating equipments with solid fuel; road traffic, including road dust resuspension; mix-asphalt installations; woodworking etc. The calm weather conditions, unfavourable to the dispersion of pollutants in the Baia Mare area, have also contributed to the air quality deterioration. However, for the selected timeframe, the pollutant evolution tendency in the local atmosphere showed a decrease of the heavy metal and sulphur dioxide concentrations, which was a result of reduced productive activity for all the local heavy-polluters and not due to the investments aimed at improving urban air quality, which did not lead to any significant changes. Currently, Remin and Romplumb Corporations are insolvent and Cuprom Corporation is bankrupt.

Physical–chemical parameters and the level of heavy metals in cow milk in the Baia Mare area

Physical–chemical parameters and the level of heavy metals in cow milk in the Baia Mare area

The Owner-manager and the Functional Management of a Small Firm

In a small firm, the founder, or owner-manager, often puts his or her stamp on the way things are done. He or she has, or is, the solution to many problems and tries to maintain control of the firm's operations. Considering these, this paper aims to investigate the degree to which the owner-managers from Baia Mare area (Romania) are controlling or even getting involved in the functional management of their firm. By conducting an empirical research, the paper brings an insight into the reality of the managerial approach the sampled owner-managers use.

A mathematical model for the study of contamination of honey with lead and cadmium in Baia Mare area

Eleven samples of honey collected from different locations spread in the Baia Mare area and situated at various distances from the pollution source, the company Romplumb S.A. (while it has been in operation and after its closure in January 2012) were studied to determine the presence of the Pb and Cd by electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry. It has been found that the concentration of lead and cadmium is generally correlated with the degree of pollution of the environment with these heavy metals, as well as with the distances from the pollution source and the directions of circulation of the contaminated air. In order to characterize the contamination of honey we introduced the index of contamination (IC) that shows a medium contamination for Pb and weak contamination for Cd in the period the pollution source was active and a weak contamination for Pb and no contamination for Cd after the closure of the metallurgical plant. We obtained a mathematical model representing the concentration of Pb in honey with respect to the geographical position in case the air was also contaminated with Pb, and showing more clearly the influence of air flows on the contamination of honey.

Application of pollution indexes, cluster analysis and isocontent chart to the study of soil pollution

Statistical methods were applied to the assessment of the multi-elements pollution degree of the soil with heavy metals and arsenic (microelements) in Baia Mare area, NW Romania. The content of several microelements were analyzed in soil samples from four zones in the studied area. Pollution indices were used to define the pollution degree compared to the Romanian regulation. Cluster analysis was used to classify the analyzed microelements (Cu, Zn, Pb, Cd, As, Co, Ni, Cr, Sn, Sb). Based on iso-contents maps for Pb and As, their contents in soil in whole Baia Mare area are assessed. The sampling point coordinates (latitude and longitude) were registered with a GPS (Global Positioning System) instrument. Considering the coordinates of each sampling point and the corresponding concentration of the considered microelement in the sampling point, a matrix XYZ was obtained where X was the longitude; Y was the latitude and Z the concentration of the microelements. A continuous surface was generated beginning with each sampling point. The spatial distribution charts drawn for the most hazardous microelements Pb and As indicated some area high polluted around the pollution source (a lead smelter).

In Vitro Studies Regarding the Control of Cryphonectria parasitica with Hydroalcoholic

Cryphonectria parasitica  (Murr.) Bar [syn. Endothia parasitica (Murr. And.] (anamorf: Endothiella sp .) is the causal agent of chestnut bark disease or chestnut blight. This disease produced great damages throughout the world, it has nearly eliminated the American chestnut tree ( Castanea dentata (Marsh.) Borkh.) from its natural range and has heavily affected the European chestnut tree ( Castanea sativa (P.) Mill). Successful protection against Cryphonectria parasitica is a very difficult problem because the conventional control methods against the fungus are not applicable with a great success because of the extreme fungus pathogenity and on the other hand because of the characteristics of sites and host plants. In our experiments the isolates of C. parasitica were picked from the Baia Mare area and for the control with plant extracts the isolates were inoculated on PDA medium that contained the extract using the poison food technique. The different extracts in three different concentrations were tested in 80 mm diameter Petri plates incubated at 25ºC and assessed after three, six and nine days of incubation. The fungistatic effect of the extracts was established by examining the presence or the absence of the colony growth. The colonies were measured establishing the colony area that appeared on the treated plates using the ellipse area formula. The results were expressed as the inhibition percent of the tested plant extracts.

INFLUENCE OF POLLUTION LEVEL ON HEAVY METALS MOBILITY IN SOIL FROM NW ROMANIA

To assess the influence of pollution degree on the heavy metals (Cu, Cd, Zn, Pb) mobility in soil, total metals content obtained by extraction in aqua regia and extractable contents in a buffered diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid (DTPA) solution were measured using inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES) and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Soil samples were collected from two areas from NW Romania with different pollution levels: a mining area (Baia Mare) and a rural area (Iclod). High pollution level with heavy metals was found in Baia Mare area, whereas contents of metals in Iclod did not exceed the alert limits established by Romanian legislation. The percentages of extractable metals were calculated, and correlations between soils pollution levels and heavy metals mobility were made. The results showed that despite the significant difference between the total metal content in soil from the two regions, estimated as the aqua regia extractable content, the percentages of DTPA extractable metals were comparable for Pb and Zn, while those for Cu and Cd were higher in the polluted region. However, significant correlation coefficients were found between total and mobilisable metals content in unpolluted site compared to the polluted site.

Survey of lead in green cheese from Baia Mare area during 2007-2010 period.

Lead is a pervasive environmental pollutant with potential public health hazard as a food contaminant of animal origin. The aim of the study was the evaluation of green cheese contamination with lead in nine surrounding localities around the industrial area Baia Mare (0-60 km). Lead determination was carried out during 2007-2010 periods on 272 green cheese samples collected from free market or private households. Lead concentration was measured by mass spectrometer with inductive coupled plasma (ICP-MS) Perkin Elmer. Lead mean concentration in green cheese was inversely, not always significantly correlated to distance from the polluting source, lead levels decreasing significantly only in samples originating from localities between 5 to 10 km. Comparing the lead levels from the industrial area with the levels obtained from the control area (Sighetul MarmaŃiei), the values were significantly higher during the entire period. Nevertheless, the samples from localities between 6 to 10 km were not significantly modified during 2008-2010 for the localities placed at 6 km and in 2010 for the localities at 7 km. Lead mean level presented an yearly decrease tendency in green cheese samples originating from either polluted or unpolluted areas. There were significant differences in the polluted area samples in 2010 comparative to 2007. The mean annual lead level surpassed the maximum levels according to Commission of Regulation (E.C.) 1881/2006 (0.1 mg/kg), excepting those in unpolluted control area.

Testing the Resistance of Asimina triloba (L.) Dunal in Soil Polluted with Heavy Metals on the Periphery of Baia Mare

SUMMARY Asimina triloba (L.) Dunal is la large shrub or small tree growing in the tropical areas (Peterson, 1991). With a view toward acclimating the species Asimina triloba (L.) Dunal to the Baia Mare area, was tested its resistance to soil polluted with heavy metals, a characteristic of this mining region. Using atomic absorption spectroscopy was determined the concentrations of the following heavy metals: Pb, Cd, Co, Ca, Zn, Cu, Ni, and Fe. Using the Analyst Perkin Elmer 800 spectrometer, was determined the concentration of heavy metals in the soil as well as in the leaves and fruits of Asimina triloba (L.) Dunal. The results of the analyses are presented in the table below.

Survey of lead in milk from Baia Mare area during 2007-2010 period.

The presence of heavy metals in milk and milk products represents a high risk for human health and therefore monitoring of heavy metals is compulsory. The aim of the study was the evaluation of milk contamination with lead in nine surrounding localities of industrial area Baia Mare (0-60 km). Lead determination was carried out during 2007-2010 period on 207 milk samples collected from free market or private households and originated from different localities situated at increasing distances from polluting source, Baia Mare industry (S.C. Romplumb S.A. and S.C. Cuprom Bucuresti/Baia Mare-branch). Lead was determined by mass spectrometer with inductive coupled plasma (ICP-MS) Perkin Elmer. The mean concentration of lead in milk was inversely but not significantly (p>0.05) correlated to the distance from the polluting source, lead levels decreasing significantly (p 0.05) up and down tendency in milk samples from either polluted or unpolluted areas. Mean annual lead level, excepting those in control, unpolluted area, over passed the maximum levels according to Commission Regulation (E.C.) 1881/2006 (0.02 mg/kg) in each year and entire period with minimum 22% in 2010 and maximum 37% in 2007.

Arsenic and Antimony Content in Soil and Plants from Baia Mare Area, Romania

Problem statement: The objective of this research was to evaluate the degree of soil contamination with arsenic and antimony in Baia Mare, a nonferrous mining and metallurgical center located in the North West region of Romania. The soil in the area is affected by the emissions of powders containing metals from metallurgical factories. Previous studies indicated the soil contamination with copper, zinc, cadmium and lead, but there is few data about the actual level of soil pollution with arsenic and antimony. Approach: The soil samples were collected from 2 districts of Baia Mare: Ferneziu, which is located in the proximity of a lead smelter and Săsar district which is located along the Săsar River in the preferential direction of the wind over a metallurgical factory producing lead. As reference was considered Dura area located in a less polluted hilly area, in the west part of the town. Samples of soil and plants from the residential area of Ferneziu, Săsar and Dura districts were collected. The arsenic determination was carried out by inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry and the antimony determination by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Results: In Ferneziu area, the concentration of arsenic in soil ranged between 0.25 and 255 mg kg-1. In Săsar district the arsenic concentration in the soil ranged between 5.5 and 295 mg kg-1. Regarding antimony, in Ferneziu area the concentration ranged between 5.3 and 40.6 mg kg-1; while in Săsar, antimony soils concentrations vary in the range: 0.9-18.4. Arsenic and antimony concentrations in plants were low for almost of the samples, both in Ferneziu and Săsar area indicating a low mobility of these elements in the studied soils. Conclusion: This study indicated the soil pollution with arsenic both in Ferneziu district and in Săsar district. The soil pollution with antimony was found especially in Ferneziu district.