Backward-facing Step Combustor Research Articles

Dynamic behavior and driving region of spray combustion instability in a backward-facing step combustor.

We numerically study the dynamic behavior and driving region of spray combustion instability in a backward-facing step combustor using analytical methodologies based on dynamical systems theory, symbolic dynamics, complex networks, and machine learning. The global dynamic behavior of a heat release rate field represents low-dimensional chaotic oscillations with deterministically aperiodic intercycle dynamics. Spray combustion instability is driven in the formation and separation region of a large-scale organized vortex induced by the hydrodynamic shear layer instability at the edge of the backstep. This region corresponds fairly to that of the hub in an acoustic-energy-flux-based spatial network. The feature importance in a random forest is valid for clarifying the feedback coupling of spray combustion instability.

Interpreting Heat Flux Measurements in a Vitiated Backward-Facing Step Flow

The investigation of the relative impact of convective and radiative heat flux from vitiated gases to a combustor wall was performed in a backward-facing step combustor. Backward-facing step flows have many flow features of gas turbine combustors (recirculation, impingement, and boundary-layer development), but in a two-dimensional, nonproprietary geometry. Reynolds number, gas temperature, and plate temperature were varied as heat flux was measured in different regions of the flow. Measurements were made using a heat flux sensor and radiometer, which measure total and radiative heat flux, respectively. The highest total heat flux was measured at the impingement location and the lowest in the recirculation zone. Separating the total heat flux into the radiative and convective components is not straightforward and requires simulations of the experiment. Spectrally resolved Monte Carlo ray-tracing simulations are used to scale the radiative heat flux measurements for the separation of convective and radiative heat flux from the total heat flux measurements. These calculations show that only about 30% of incident radiation is captured by the radiometer due to spectral differences between the two sensors. Once the radiation measurement is corrected, experimental results show higher radiative than convective heat transfer at low Reynolds numbers (Reh=2000), highlighting the impact of radiative heat transfer in hot gas environments.

Nonlinear dynamical features of vortex-acoustic lock-on in a backward-facing step combustor

Unstable shear layers characteristic of step combustors display strong vortex shedding and play a dominant role in combustion instability. Past non-premixed flame experiments with Reynolds number (Re) as the bifurcation parameter showed that during instability, the frequency of acoustic oscillations locks-on to the natural vortex shedding mode for a range of Re. In the present work, we study the dynamical features of this type of lock-on. We employ a vortex model to bring out the nonlinearity in the flame response to vortical perturbations. This is coupled with a Galerkin model for the acoustic field. Regimes of aperiodic oscillations, low-amplitude lock-on and high-amplitude lock-on are predicted in agreement with experimental trends. Phase portraits show a transition to instability during lock-on via a supercritical Hopf bifurcation with an increase in limit cycle amplitudes. Synchronisation between the acoustic pressure and vortex-driven heat release perturbation is studied using recurrence analysis. The system transitions from asynchronous to phase synchronisation in the low-amplitude lock-on regime, characterised by an increasing degree of phase correlation. In the high-amplitude lock-on regime, a state of generalised synchronisation exists, where in addition to the phase, the amplitudes also show strong correlation.

Experimental investigation on critical slowing down of premixed combustion in a backward-facing step combustor

Critical slowing down phenomena occur during the transition process of various dynamical states, such as bifurcations. The eigenvalues of dynamical systems can be regarded as an indicator of critical slowing down of impending bifurcation. Adaptive, locally linear models can extract local eigenvalues of the nonlinear dynamical system by segmenting a full-time series into multi-windows, and eigenvalue spectrum analysis is based on the eigenvalues. The state transition between different combustion states occurs through bifurcation processes. In this paper, we investigate critical slowing down in the bifurcation process of backward-facing step combustor. We performed a series of experiments by fixing the air mass flow and varying the fuel mass flow from the lean blowout condition to a thermoacoustic instability condition with a quasi-steady change, and the combustion state varying versus the change of the operation conditions exhibit a quasi-Hopf bifurcation process. The measured pressure fluctuations were treated by the local linear model to analyse the eigenvalue spectrum. The real parts of the eigenvalues approximate zero gradually when the equivalence ratio increases, and this tendency corresponds to the critical slowing down. Furthermore, the commonly used early warning signals were also used to support the analysis results of the eigenvalue spectrum.

Experimental Investigation on High Frequency Perturbation to Combustion Instability by Low Frequency Actuator in a Backward-facing Step Combustor

Compared with the quasi-steady combustion process, the large pressure oscillation in the combustion unstable process contains rich physical characteristics and more severe structural damage phenomenon. The active control method is more flexible and efficient by controlling some parameters of the combustion system through the actuator, so as to destroy the coupling between heat release oscillation and acoustic disturbance. However, the existing active control method is limited by the lack of model and actuator frequency, which has limitations on the control ability of the unsteady process. In this paper, a low-frequency actuator is used to stimulate the fuel injection system of the rear step combustors, and the time series of the experimental pressure measurement of the combustors is analyzed qualitatively. It is found that the periodic excitation signal will trigger the modal conversion of the frequency and amplitude of the combustors, which makes the intermittent state of the system appear obviously in advance or lag phenomenon. Through the analysis of the pressure sequence recursion diagram, it is considered that the low frequency actuator excited by the high frequency periodic signal has an effect on the combustion state transition of the combustor.

Interpretation of Intermittent Combustion Oscillations by a New Linearization Procedure

The transition from the low-amplitude, aperiodic fluctuation to thermoacoustic instability is usually treated as a Hopf bifurcation, but the transition incorporates complex dynamical behaviors. Intermittent oscillations commonly occur in the transition process wherein chaotic states alternate with limit cycle oscillations and both the chaotic state and the limit cycle oscillation last with no fixed period. Intermittent oscillations that occur in the thermoacoustic system are demonstrated to be deterministic. A Koopman linearization procedure is implemented to model the intermittent combustion oscillations in the backward-facing step combustor. The nonlinear dynamics of intermittent combustion oscillations are approximated as a forced linear system in an orthogonal space, which is constructed by singular value decomposition of a delay coordinates matrix. The phase space of an intermittent combustion oscillation can be divided into linear and nonlinear regions by the magnitude of the nonlinear term in the forced linear system. As a result, intermittent combustion oscillations can be described as the transition between chaotic states and limit cycle oscillations, and the transition occurs when the nonlinear term is large.

A Reduced-order Model for Lock-on via Vortex-combustion-acoustic Closed-loop Coupling in A Step Combustor

ABSTRACT The lock-on of the frequency of acoustic oscillations to the frequency of the vortex shedding in a reacting flow in a backward-facing step combustor is demonstrated using a reduced-order model. Individual models for the flow, flame and acoustic models are developed. A two-dimensional flow field with growth and shedding of vortices is modeled using a potential flow model derived via a conformal mapping of the step geometry. Combustion and acoustic models are derived using thermo-diffusive equations and the one-dimensional Galerkin method, respectively. A modulation of heat release rate fluctuations is thus enabled by vortices advecting past the flame, overcoming the time and space-localized assumptions in vortex kicked oscillator models. Comparisons with results from kicked oscillator models show a better prediction of the dominant frequencies during stable and unstable operations. A Reynolds number sweep is performed to reveal the transition from stable to unstable operation and thus the onset of instability. A shift in the dominant frequency of pressure fluctuations from the natural duct acoustic mode to the natural vortex shedding mode is observed, indicative of a lock-on. The results compare well with past experimental and computational data for similar geometry and flow conditions.

Vortex merging events during amplitude switching in mixed-mode pressure oscillations in a partially premixed backward facing combustor

The role of hydrodynamics resulting in the mixed-mode oscillations (MMO) of unsteady pressure in a backward facing step combustor with partially premixed flame is investigated using time-resolved particle image velocimetry and CH* chemiluminescence imaging. This mode of pressure oscillations comprises switching between high-amplitude oscillations dictated by acoustic mode and/vortex mode and low-amplitude oscillations. The high-amplitude oscillations are marked by intense flow and flame modulation, while the low-amplitude oscillations are accompanied by small-scale structures on the shear layer, that are sedate in driving the heat release oscillations. The small-scales override on the elongated flame that resides in the recirculation zone of the step. The key aspect of the present work is in identifying the transitional events that result in the decay/ onset of high-amplitudes. This is achieved by tracking vortex cores at each instant during the transition. The small-scale shear layer structures, that are present during low-amplitude events merge as they convect with the flow. The identified vortex cores on the shear layer and in the recirculation zone reduce in their multiplicity as the merger progresses. This subsequently results in the genesis of a large-scale structure that modulates the flame coherently, thereby triggering high-amplitude oscillations. This is corroborated with identifying the presence of a single vortex core resulting in high amplitude events.

Influences of liquid fuel atomization and flow rate fluctuations on spray combustion instabilities in a backward-facing step combustor

Combustion instabilities occurring in spray combustion fields inside a backward facing step combustor have been investigated by performing large-eddy simulations (LES). In this study, the influence of fluctuations in the incoming oxidizer air velocity (caused by drastic pressure oscillations in the combustor during combustion instability) on the droplet diameter distribution (due to atomization) of the injected liquid fuel spray, as well as the influence of pressure oscillations on the fuel flow rate have been taken into consideration using appropriate models. For the temporal fluctuations in fuel droplet diameter distribution, a model for the Sauter Mean Diamter (SMD) of atomized droplets, obtained as a function of spray injection parameters and gas/liquid properties, is incorporated in the LES. Additionally, to consider the temporal fluctuations in fuel flow rate along with its phase difference with the pressure oscillations, a model derived from Bernoullis principle is proposed and employed in the LES. The objective is to examine in detail, the impacts of the fluctuations in fuel droplet diameter distribution and the fluctuations in fuel injection rate individually, as well as the impact of the mutual interaction of these two fluctuations, on the spray combustion instability characteristics. Results of the LES reveal that the temporal fluctuations in fuel droplet diameter distribution resulting from combustion instability, lead to a reduction in the intensity of pressure oscillations and hence the combustion instability’s strength. Additionally, the temporal fluctuations in liquid fuel flow rate strongly influence the intensity of spray combustion instability, and it is observed that the combustion instability intensity increases with the increase in phase difference between the fuel flow rate fluctuations and pressure oscillations. Furthermore, the effect of the temporal fluctuations in fuel droplet diameter distribution resulting in the reduction of combustion instability intensity, becomes more pronounced as the phase shift between the fuel flow rate fluctuations and pressure oscillations becomes larger. It is clarified that the above-mentioned behavior of spray combustion instability, results from the change in the correlation between heat release rate fluctuations and pressure oscillations near the combustor’s dump plane, which is caused by the change in the local residence time of fuel droplets and the local fuel droplet evaporation rate.

On the emergence of large clusters of acoustic power sources at the onset of thermoacoustic instability in a turbulent combustor

In turbulent combustors, the transition from stable combustion (i.e. combustion noise) to thermoacoustic instability occurs via intermittency. During stable combustion, the acoustic power production happens in a spatially incoherent manner. In contrast, during thermoacoustic instability, the acoustic power production happens in a spatially coherent manner. In the present study, we investigate the spatiotemporal dynamics of acoustic power sources during the intermittency route to thermoacoustic instability using complex network theory. To that end, we perform simultaneous acoustic pressure measurement, high-speed chemiluminescence imaging and particle image velocimetry in a backward-facing step combustor with a bluff body stabilized flame at different equivalence ratios. We examine the spatiotemporal dynamics of acoustic power sources by constructing time-varying spatial networks during the different dynamical states of combustor operation. We show that as the turbulent combustor transits from combustion noise to thermoacoustic instability via intermittency, small fragments of acoustic power sources, observed during combustion noise, nucleate, coalesce and grow in size to form large clusters at the onset of thermoacoustic instability. This nucleation, coalescence and growth of small clusters of acoustic power sources occurs during the growth of pressure oscillations during intermittency. In contrast, during the decay of pressure oscillations during intermittency, these large clusters of acoustic power sources disintegrate into small ones. We use network measures such as the link density, the number of components and the size of the largest component to quantify the spatiotemporal dynamics of acoustic power sources as the turbulent combustor transits from combustion noise to thermoacoustic instability via intermittency.

Role of intermediate temperature kinetics and radical transport in the prediction of leading edge structure of turbulent lean premixed flames

The stabilization of turbulent lean premixed flames in a backward-facing step combustor is investigated using large eddy simulations, with a reduced 2-step reaction kinetics mechanism and one of two detailed mechanisms. Although all reaction mechanisms predict similar laminar flame velocities and adiabatic flame temperatures, significant instabilities are observed only when the detailed mechanisms are employed, as supported by experimental observations. The flame structure, location of its leading edge away from the step, and primary recirculation zone are generally in better agreement with the experimental data when using the detailed mechanisms. These observations suggest that key kinetic steps missing in a reduced mechanism may be crucial for modeling the complex interactions between the turbulent flow and chemical reactions in these reacting flows. Indeed, by examining the flame structure in some detail, we find that intermediate temperature chemistry in the recirculation zone region contributes to the flame response and hence the evolution of instabilities downstream. We examine the results obtained using the detailed mechanisms to show that radical transport within the flame anchoring standoff distance play an important role in intermediate temperature reactions, initiated by local mixing of reactants and products. While flamelet like behavior was observed downstream, departure from that structure in the upstream recirculation region where reactants mix with products makes the flames more receptive to large-scale vorticity fluctuations. While global reduced mechanisms reproduce macro targets such as flame speed and temperature, they need not necessarily reproduce the correct flame anchoring location, and the interactions with shear layers.

LES/FMDF of premixed methane/air flow in a backward-facing step combustor

In the present study, a hybrid Eulerian-Lagrangian methodology is utilized for large eddy simulation (LES) of premixed fuel/air flow over a three-dimensional backward facing step (BFS). The fluid dynamic features are obtained by solving the Eulerian filtered compressible transport equations while the species are predicted by using the filtered mass density function method (FMDF). Some scalar fields are duplicated in FD and MC solvers to examine the numerical consistency between them. A good agreement is achieved by comparing the essential characteristics of the BFS flow (such as the mean and RMS values of the velocity and temperature fields and also the reattachment length) obtained from numerical results with the measurements. This ensures that the proposed hybrid method is reliable for studying the reacting flow in relatively complex combustion systems. Additionally, the performance of several SGS models are assessed, and the results indicate that the dynamic Smagorinsky and WALE models are superior to standard Smagorinsky and MKEV models.

Effect of inlet flow turbulence on the combustion instability in a premixed backward-facing step combustor

This paper reports the effect of inlet flow turbulence intensity on the combustion instability characteristics in a backward facing step combustor. The inlet turbulence intensity is varied by a turbulence generator. Unsteady pressure measurements and OH* chemiluminescence images are recorded over a wide range of operating conditions at different inlet turbulence intensities. The study shows an early onset of instability at low turbulence level, i.e., higher turbulence postpones the onset of instability to higher Reynolds number Re and/or higher equivalence ratio Φ. The early onset of instability in the Re and Φ parameter spaces is due to the change in system parameters such as flame speed and size of the recirculation zone downstream of the step at different turbulence levels. Further, the onset is characterized as subcritical bifurcation. At low Re, the hysteresis zone width is small for low turbulence levels and it is large at higher turbulence levels; and at higher Re, the hysteresis width remains constant at all turbulence levels. Investigation of instability characteristics reveals that there are momentary slippages from limit cycle orbit into brief silent regimes in an intermittent manner. The frequency of occurrence of the momentary silent regimes increases with reduction in turbulence, indicating that higher turbulence helps in maintaining the system in a stable limit cycle orbit. High-speed chemiluminescence imaging reveals the necessity of the vortex rollup in the recirculation zone to grow up to the top wall by dilatation from the heat release for the onset of instability. Considerations of the effect of turbulence on both the flame speed and the recirculation zone size together explain all the observed bifurcation trends. These results suggest that inlet flow turbulence should not just be considered as background noise. The turbulence effects on both the flame and flow should be considered in predicting the instability characteristics.

Role of hydrodynamic shear layer stability in driving combustion instability in a premixed propane-air backward-facing step combustor

With numerical methods and analysis of existing experimental results we show that combustion instability in a backward-facing step combustor can be maintained either with weak coupling between acoustic and hydrodynamic modes (semi-open loop) or with strong coupling (fully closed loop).

Stabilization and blowout characteristics of lean premixed turbulent flames behind a backward-facing step in a rectangular combustor with heated propane-air mixtures

The flame stabilization and blowout velocity of lean premixed turbulent flames in a backward-facing step combustor were investigated experimentally with well-defined stable flames. The dynamic pressure in the combustor was monitored to select a stable regime among overall flame behaviors. The responses in the flame behaviors to changes in the initial conditions of equivalence ratio, inlet temperature, and Reynolds number were simultaneously captured using high-speed CH∗ chemiluminescence. The results showed that the flame modes were categorized into four representative regimes according to their dynamic behavior, overall sound pressure level, and frequency spectrum: (1) stable regime, (2) unstable regime, (3) quasi-unstable regime, and (4) transition regime. For lean premixed turbulent flames in the stable regime, the flame distance, defined as distance x from the step to flame appearance, increased with the decrease in the initial equivalence ratio, and blowout occurred near the lower flammability limits. The blowout velocities linearly correlated with both the inverse of chemical reaction time (α0/SL,02)−1 and extinction strain rate εext,0 under different initial conditions. The two chemical time scales were obtained using different flame models based on either the premixed laminar flame-speed or premixed opposed-flow flame model. In addition, the flame distances showed a linear correlation of df ∝ U0/SL,02 for all the data in the stable regime. This result implies that the lean premixed turbulent flames could be stabilized at flame distances where the local mean flow velocity is balanced with the turbulent flame speed, which is proportional to the square of laminar burning velocity.

Spatiotemporal dynamics during the transition to thermoacoustic instability: Effect of varying turbulence intensities

An experimental study on a turbulent, swirl-stabilized backward facing step combustor is conducted to understand the spatiotemporal dynamics during the transition from combustion noise to thermoacoustic instability. By using a turbulence generator, we investigate the change in the spatiotemporal dynamics during this transition for added turbulence intensities. High-speed CH* images of the flame (representative of the field of local heat release rate fluctuations ([Formula: see text]( x, y, t))) and simultaneous unsteady pressure fluctuations ([Formula: see text]( t)) are acquired for different equivalence ratios. In the study, without the turbulence generator, as the equivalence ratio is reduced from near stoichiometric values, we observe an emergence of coherence in the spatial dynamics during the occurrence of intermittency, enroute to thermoacoustic instability. As the turbulence intensity is increased using the turbulence generator, we find that there is an advanced onset of thermoacoustic instability. Spatial statistics and the instantaneous fields of [Formula: see text] show that during the transition from combustion noise to thermoacoustic instability, the emergence of coherent spatial structures in the instantaneous fields of [Formula: see text] for the experiments with higher turbulence intensities is advanced. However, as the equivalence ratio is reduced further, we notice that higher turbulence intensities result in the reduction of the strength of the pressure oscillations during the state of thermoacoustic instability. We find that, at these low equivalence ratios, there is a decrease in the coherence due to the dispersal of [Formula: see text], which explains the reduction in the strength of the pressure oscillations.

Flame-acoustic coupling of combustion instability in a non-premixed backward-facing step combustor: the role of acoustic-Reynolds stress

Combustion instability in a laboratory scale backward-facing step combustor is numerically investigated by carrying out an acoustically coupled incompressible large eddy simulation of turbulent reacting flow for various Reynolds numbers with fuel injection at the step. The problem is mathematically formulated as a decomposition of the full compressible Navier–Stokes equations using multi-scale analysis by recognising the small length scale and large time scale of the flow field relative to a longitudinal mode acoustic field for low mean Mach numbers. The equations are decomposed into those for an incompressible flow with temperature-dependent density to zeroth order and linearised Euler equations for acoustics as a first order compressibility correction. Explicit coupling terms between the two equation sets are identified to be the flow dilatation as a source of acoustic energy and the acoustic Reynolds stress (ARS) as a source of flow momentum. The numerical simulations are able to capture the experimentally observed flow–acoustic lock-on that signifies the onset of combustion instability, marked by a shift in the dominant frequency from an acoustic to a hydrodynamic mode and accompanied by a nonlinear variation of pressure amplitude. Attention is devoted to flow conditions at two Reynolds numbers before and after lock-on to show that, after lock-on, the ARS causes large-scale vortical rollup resulting in the evolution of a compact flame. As compared to acoustically uncoupled simulations at these Reynolds numbers that show an elongated flame with no significant roll up and disturbance in the upstream flow field, the ARS is seen to alter the shear layer dynamics by affecting the flow field upstream of the step as well, when acoustically coupled.

Investigation of a turbulent premixed combustion flame in a backward-facing step combustor; effect of equivalence ratio

In the present study, LES (large-eddy simulation) is utilized to analyze lean-premixed propane-air flame stability in a backward-step combustor over a range of equivalence ratio. The artificially thickened flame approach coupled with a reduced reaction mechanism is incorporated for modeling the turbulence–combustion interactions at small scales. Simulation results are compared to high-speed PIV (particle image velocimetry) measurements for validation. The results show that the numerical framework captures different topological flow features effectively and with reasonable accuracy, for stable flame configurations, but some quantitative differences exist. The RZ (recirculation zone) is formed of a primary eddy and a secondary eddy and its overall size is significantly impacted by the equivalence ratio. The temperature distribution inside the recirculation zone is highly non-uniform, with much lower values observed close to the backward step and the bottom wall. The mixture distribution inside the RZ is also non-uniform because of mixing with reactants and heat loss to the walls. The flame is stabilized closer to the backward step as the equivalence ratio increases. At lower fuel fractions, the flame lifts off the step starting at equivalence ratio of 0.63 and the lift off distance is increased while the equivalence ratio is lowered.

Influence of jet-to-crossflow pressure ratio on nonreacting and reacting processes in a scramjet combustor with backward-facing steps

The jet-to-crossflow pressure ratio has a large impact on the combustion mode transition in the scramjet engine, and this information needs to be explored comprehensively. The effect of the jet-to-crossflow pressure ratio on the mixing and combustion processes in a backward-facing step combustor has been investigated numerically, and two similar cases have been utilized to validate the numerical approaches employed. The obtained results show that the wall pressure distribution for the nonreacting flow field has been predicted well, and the peak pressures are all a bit underestimated. However, the predicted wall pressure distribution for the reacting flow field does not match well with the experimental data, and it is overestimated. When the hydrogen is injected only from the bottom wall of the combustor, the mixing efficiency decreases with the increase of the jet-to-crossflow pressure ratio irrespective of the nonreacting or reacting flow field. When the hydrogen is injected simultaneously from the top and bottom walls, the separation shock wave is pushed forward to the entrance of the combustor, and it varies from an oblique one to a normal one. This means that the jet-to-crossflow pressure ratio has a great impact on the combustion mode transition for the scramjet engine, and the stable ramjet/scramjet mode transition can be obtained by controlling the fuel injection scheme.

Absolute/Convective Instability Transition in a Backward Facing Step Combustor: Fundamental Mechanism and Influence of Density Gradient

Hydrodynamic instabilities of the flow field in lean premixed gas turbine combustors can generate velocity perturbations that wrinkle and distort the flame sheet over length scales that are smaller than the flame length. The resultant heat release oscillations can then potentially result in combustion instability. Thus, it is essential to understand the hydrodynamic instability characteristics of the combustor flow field in order to understand its overall influence on combustion instability characteristics. To this end, this paper elucidates the role of fluctuating vorticity production from a linear hydrodynamic stability analysis as the key mechanism promoting absolute/convective instability transitions in shear layers occurring in the flow behind a backward facing step. These results are obtained within the framework of an inviscid, incompressible, local temporal and spatio-temporal stability analysis. Vorticity fluctuations in this limit result from interaction between two competing mechanisms—(1) production from interaction between velocity perturbations and the base flow vorticity gradient and (2) baroclinic torque in the presence of base flow density gradients. This interaction has a significant effect on hydrodynamic instability characteristics when the base flow density and velocity gradients are colocated. Regions in the space of parameters characterizing the base flow velocity profile, i.e., shear layer thickness and ratio of forward to reverse flow velocity, corresponding to convective and absolute instability are identified. The implications of the present results on understanding prior experimental studies of combustion instability in backward facing step combustors and hydrodynamic instability in other flows such as heated jets and bluff body stabilized flames is discussed.