Background Intensity Research Articles

The Cosmological Optical Convergence: Extragalactic Background Light from TeV Gamma Rays

The intensity of the extragalactic background (EBL), the accumulated optical and infrared emissions since the first stars, is the subject of a decades-long tension in the optical band. These photons form a target field that attenuates the γ-ray flux from extragalactic sources. This Letter reports the first γ-ray measurement of the EBL spectrum at z = 0 that is purely parametric and independent of EBL evolution with redshift over a wavelength range from 0.18 to 120 μm. Our method extracts the EBL absorption imprint on more than 260 archival TeV spectra from the STeVECat catalog by marginalizing nuisance parameters describing the intrinsic emission and instrumental uncertainties. We report an intensity at 600 nm of 6.9 ± 1.9 nW m−2 sr−1 × h 70, which is indistinguishable from the intensity derived from integrated galaxy light (IGL) and compatible with direct measurements taken beyond Pluto’s orbit. We exclude with 95% confidence diffuse contributions to the EBL with an intensity relative to the IGL, f diff, greater than 20% and provide a measurement of the expansion rate of the Universe at z = 0, H0=67−6+7 km s−1 Mpc −1 × (1 + f diff), which is EBL-model independent. IGL, direct, and γ-ray measurements agree on the EBL intensity in the optical band, finally reaching a cosmological optical convergence.

Association between number of hospitalizations of older adults and heatwaves in Slovenia 1999-2018

Abstract Background Heatwaves frequency, intensity, and duration increase with global climate change. The association between heat and mortality in older adults is well documented, but less is known about associations with hospitalizations. Knowing which diseases contribute to a higher number of hospitalizations during heatwaves is important for planning appropriate public health preventive measures. Methods We assessed short-term association between the number of hospitalizations for older adults (75+ years) and heatwaves in the years 1999 to 2018 in Slovenia. We estimated the relative risks (RR) with 95 % confidence interval for the number of hospitalizations for the observed diagnosis (all causes, circulatory, respiratory, endocrine and genitourinary diseases) and gender associated with heatwaves in Slovenia for each year, comparing the number of hospitalizations during heatwaves with reference days. Results We could not find an association between heatwaves and hospitalizations for all cause hospitalizations in all observed years. In some years the association was even negative. In cause specific analyses heatwaves were associated with increased hospitalizations for endocrine diseases in 2012 (32%; 95% CI: 1%, 73%), 2013 (23%; 95% CI: 5%, 33%), 2014 (48%; 95% CI: 4%, 110%) and 2015 (42%; 95% CI: 7%, 89%), but not for cardiovascular, respiratory and genitourinary diseases. Conclusions Older adults are most susceptible to the effects of extreme heat due to physiological changes that occur with aging, chronic diseases, certain medications, a sedentary lifestyle and social isolation. The results of our study will help in planning appropriate preventive public health measures to better protect older adults during the next heatwaves in Slovenia. Key messages • Heatwaves will become longer, more frequent and more intense in the near future. • Endocrine diseases are the most important cause for hospitalization during heatwaves. Public health measures shoud adress these most vulnerable groups.

Prediction the Level of the Electromagnetic Background Created by Constellations of Satellites Near the Earth’s Surface Using Registration Data

A technique has been proposed for predicting the average intensity of electromagnetic background created near the Earth’s surface by a constellation of communication satellites, taking into account the number of satellites in the constellation, the satellite total radiated power, parameters of its radiation in the main and side lobes, the orbit altitude and restrictions on the tilt angle of service of ground-based equipment. The results of the analysis of the dependence of the average electromagnetic background levels at the Earth’s surface on the number of satellites in the constellation under various scenarios for the implementation of information services for terrestrial subscriber terminals are presented, confirming the adequacy of the developed approach. It is concluded that the expected levels of electromagnetic background in the microwave range created by megaconstellations of low-orbit communication satellites are many orders of magnitude higher than the levels of electromagnetic background of natural origin, which significantly changes the physical characteristics of the habitat.

LSTM-based framework for predicting point defect percentage in semiconductor materials using simulated XRD patterns

In this paper, we present a machine learning-based approach that leverages Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) networks combined with a sliding window technique for feature extraction, aimed at accurately predicting point defect percentages in semiconductor materials based on simulated X-ray Diffraction (XRD) data. The model was initially trained on silicon-simulated XRD data with defect percentages ranging from 1 to 5%, enabling it to predict defect percentages from 0 to 10% in silicon and other semiconductor materials, including AlAs, CdS, GaAs, Ge, and ZnS. Through extensive experimentation, we explored different sequence lengths and LSTM units, identifying the optimal configuration as a sequence length of 3501 and 4500 units, which yielded the best results. The model’s mean absolute error at 4500 units was 0.021, the lowest among the LSTM configurations tested. The sliding window technique plays a crucial role in capturing temporal dependencies within the XRD data, allowing the model to generalize to other semiconductor materials. Additionally, we observed that increasing defect percentages consistently led to a rise in background intensity. We further examined the relationship between crystal structure and defect precentage predictions, uncovering consistent trends for materials with Diamond Cubic and Zinc Blende structures. This LSTM-based method offers a novel approach to predicting defect percentages using simulated XRD patterns of materials.

X‐ray–induced multicolor long afterglow and photostimulated luminescence from Pr3+‐doped Sr3(PO4)2

AbstractIn this paper, X‐ray–induced multicolor long afterglow and photostimulated luminescence from Sr3(PO4)2: Pr3+ was reported. The Rietveld refinement results have confirmed the as‐prepared sample was pure Sr3(PO4)2 phase with hexagonal crystal system. And Sr3(PO4)2: Pr3+ showed an excellent X‐ray–induced long afterglow luminescent performance. Under the excitation of X‐ray, the sample showed multicolor long afterglow luminescence from UVC to red region located at 268, 359, 466, 548, 604.3 and 685 nm, which can be ascribed to 4f5d‐3H4, 4f5d‐ 1D2, 4f5d‐3P0, 3P0→3H5 and 1D2→3H4, respectively. And the strongest afterglow emission intensity appeared at 468 nm. Furthermore, only 30 s X‐ray irradiation can induce 12 h afterglow emission, which afterglow emission intensity of 468 nm still reached 3.71 × 104 cps and was about 37.1 times stronger than the background intensity. In particular, the relation between 268 nm afterglow emission intensity and 468 nm afterglow emission intensity showed good linearity. And the UVC afterglow emission can be easily “observed” via the visible afterglow light. Furthermore, Sr3(PO4)2: Pr3+ possessed an excellent photostimulated luminescence (PSL) under the excitation of 980 nm NIR laser and the PSL intensity of the 12 circle still arrived at 1.26 × 105 cps, which was about 37.1 times stronger than the afterglow emission intensity after 5 h decay. All these results showed that the as‐prepared Sr3(PO4)2: Pr3+ phosphor was an excellent X‐ray–induced long afterglow luminescence phosphor, which possessed large potential applications in the medical field.

Multiregion Light Control in Diffusive Media via Wavefront Shaping.

Wavefront shaping allows focusing light through or inside strongly scattering media, but the background intensity also increases which reduces the target's contrast. By combining transmission or deposition matrices for different regions, we construct joint operators to achieve spatially resolved control of light in diffusive systems. The eigenmode of a contrast operator can maximize the power contrast between a target and its surrounding. A difference operator enhances the power delivery to a target while avoiding the background increase. This work opens the door to coherent control of nonlocal effects in wave transport for practical applications.

Three-Frame Random Phase-Shifting Algorithm Based on VU Decomposition Method and Ellipse Fitting

Abstract To enhance the precision and robustness of the three-frame phase shift technique, a new three-frame random phase-shifting fringe pattern phase demodulation method that combines VU decomposition and ellipse fitting techniques without the need for pre-filtering is proposed. The proposed method first performs VU decomposition on the interferograms to establish two orthogonal components of the fringe pattern. Then, the ellipse fitting method is used to obtain the relevant ellipse coefficients, thereby achieving precise phase demodulation. This method does not require an accurate phase-shifting process, thereby relaxing the stringent requirements on the phase shifter. Compared with traditional algorithms, the proposed method performs better under conditions of non-uniform background intensity and modulation amplitude. Numerical simulation experiments demonstrate that the proposed method maintains good stability across 20 repeated tests. Within the SNR range of 30 to 50 dB, the RMSE of the suggested approach is approximately 0.006 rad. This proves the effectiveness of the algorithm and provides a new approach for the development of three-frame phase-shifting technology.

Statistical Inference for Networks of High-Dimensional Point Processes

Fueled in part by recent applications in neuroscience, the multivariate Hawkes process has become a popular tool for modeling the network of interactions among high-dimensional point process data. While evaluating the uncertainty of the network estimates is critical in scientific applications, existing methodological and theoretical work has primarily addressed estimation. To bridge this gap, we develop a new statistical inference procedure for high-dimensional Hawkes processes. The key ingredient for the inference procedure is a new concentration inequality on the first- and second-order statistics for integrated stochastic processes, which summarize the entire history of the process. Combining recent martingale central limit theorem with the new concentration inequality, we then characterize the convergence rate of the test statistics in a continuous time domain. Finally, to account for potential non-stationarity of the process in practice, we extend our statistical inference procedure to a flexible class of Hawkes processes with time-varying background intensities and unknown transition functions. The finite sample validity of the inferential tools is illustrated via extensive simulations and further applied to a neuron spike train dataset. Supplementary materials for this article are available online, including a standardized description of the materials available for reproducing the work.

Technical and biological sources of unreliability of Infinium probes on Illumina methylation microarrays

The Illumina Methylation array platform has facilitated countless epigenetic studies on DNA methylation (DNAme) in health and disease, yet relatively few studies have so studied its reliability, i.e., the consistency of repeated measures. Here we investigate the reliability of both type I and type II Infinium probes. We propose a method for excluding unreliable probes based on dynamic thresholds for mean intensity (MI) and ‘unreliability’, estimated by probe-level simulation of the influence of technical noise on methylation β values using the background intensities of negative control probes. We validate our method in several datasets, including newly generated Illumina MethylationEPIC BeadChip v1.0 data from paired whole blood samples taken six weeks apart and technical replicates spanning multiple sample types. Our analysis revealed that specifically probes with low MI exhibit higher β value variability between repeated samples. MI was associated with the number of C-bases in the respective probe sequence and correlated negatively with unreliability scores. The unreliability scores were substantiated through validation in a new EPIC v1.0 (blood and cervix) and a publicly available 450k (blood) dataset, as they effectively captured the variability observed in β values between technical replicates. Finally, despite promising higher robustness, the newer version v2.0 of the MethylationEPIC BeadChip retained a substantial number of probes with poor unreliability scores. To enhance current pre-processing pipelines, we developed an R package to calculate MI and unreliability scores and provide guidance on establishing optimal dynamic score thresholds for a given dataset.

New Synoptic Observations of the Cosmic Optical Background with New Horizons

We obtained New Horizons LORRI images to measure the cosmic optical background (COB) intensity integrated over 0.4 μm ≲ λ ≲ 0.9 μm. The survey comprises 16 high-Galactic-latitude fields selected to minimize scattered diffuse Galactic light (DGL) from the Milky Way, as well as scattered light from bright stars. This work supersedes an earlier analysis based on observations of one of the present fields. Isolating the COB contribution to the raw total sky levels measured in the fields requires subtracting the remaining scattered light from bright stars and galaxies, intensity from faint stars within the fields fainter than the photometric detection limit, and the DGL foreground. DGL is estimated from 350 μm and 550 μm intensities measured by the Planck High Frequency Instrument, using a new self-calibrated indicator based on the 16 fields augmented with eight additional DGL calibration fields obtained as part of the survey. The survey yields a highly significant detection (6.8σ) of the COB at 11.16 ± 1.65 (1.47 sys, 0.75 ran) nW m−2 sr−1 at the LORRI pivot wavelength of 0.608 μm. The estimated integrated intensity from background galaxies, 8.17 ± 1.18 nW m−2 sr−1, can account for the great majority of this signal. The rest of the COB signal, 2.99 ± 2.03 (1.75 sys, 1.03 ran) nW m−2 sr−1, is formally classified as anomalous intensity but is not significantly different from zero. The simplest interpretation is that the COB is completely due to galaxies.

Crystal structure of asphaltene under mechanical stress of ball milling

This work aims to investigate the structural behaviour of asphaltene under mechanical stress using ball milling. Asphaltene samples were collected and separated from Kuwait export crude using n-heptane and subsequently ball milled for up to 24 h. X-ray diffraction was used to provide an insight into asphaltene macrostructure properties, which subsequently utilised to determine crystallite parameters. The results showed that the mechanical stress has a great influence on these structural parameters, with an increase of the aromatic sheet's inter-layer distance from 3.6 Å to 3.9 Å. While the height of stacked aromatic sheets per cluster and the number of stacked aromatic sheets per cluster decreased from 24.6 Å to 9.3 Å and 8 to 3.2, respectively. A significant increment in the aromaticity value was also observed after the ball milling experimentations, indicating mechanical stress induces cyclisation and aromatisation. The XRD profiles of the higher milling time samples reveals a high background intensity. This suggests a formation and/or increasing the proportion of highly disordered materials. In addition, the effects magnitude on asphaltene crystal parameters between the mechanical stress against heat stress was compared. The results showed core structural parameters are more sensitive to mechanical stress over heat stress.

Online nonlinearity elimination for fringe projection profilometry using slope intensity coding

The nonlinearity effect in the system of fringe projection profilometry can cause the non-sinusoidal deviation of the fringe patterns, inducing ripple-like phase errors and further affecting measurement accuracy. This paper presents an online nonlinearity elimination method based on slope intensity coding. Two sequences of sinusoidal phase-shifting fringe patterns with different frequencies, and one slope intensity pattern with one uniform intensity pattern are projected. The equations for the nonlinearity response are established using the defined mean and modulation parameters, the captured uniform intensity and two extracted background intensities. The nonlinearity response coefficients determined by solving the equations are used for pixel-wise nonlinearity correction on the captured images, which are employed for computing the wrapped phase, and further obtaining continuous phase by the multi-frequency phase unwrapping method. Experimental results demonstrate that the proposed method can eliminate the nonlinearity-induced phase error online by using fewer images and maintain the reliability of phase unwrapping in the measurement of isolated objects with complex surfaces.

Constraining the Clustering and 21 cm Signature of Radio Galaxies at Cosmic Dawn

The efficiency of radio emission is an important unknown parameter of early galaxies at cosmic dawn, as models with high efficiency have been shown to modify the cosmological 21 cm signal substantially, deepening the absorption trough and boosting the 21 cm power spectrum. Such models have been previously directly constrained by the overall extragalactic radio background, as observed by Absolute Radiometer for Cosmology, Astrophysics, and Diffuse Emission 2 and Long Wavelength Array. In this work, we constrain the clustering of high-redshift radio sources by utilizing the observed upper limits on arcminute-scale anisotropy from the Very Large Array at 4.9 GHz and Australia Telescope Compact Array at 8.7 GHz. Using a seminumerical simulation of a plausible astrophysical model for illustration, we show that the clustering constraints on the radio efficiency are much stronger than those from the overall background intensity by a factor that varies between 18 and 55 in the redshift range of 7–22. As a result, the predicted maximum depth of the global 21 cm signal is lowered by a factor of 6 (to 1400 mK), and the maximum 21 cm power spectrum peak at cosmic dawn is lowered by a factor of 45 (to 1.3 × 105 mK2). We conclude that the observed clustering is the strongest current direct constraint on such models, but strong early radio emission from galaxies remains viable for producing a strongly enhanced 21 cm signal from cosmic dawn.

Reference Database for a Novel Binocular Visual Function Perimeter: A Randomized Clinical Trial

PurposeTo construct a comprehensive reference database for a novel binocular automated perimeter. DesignA four-site prospective randomized clinical trial. Subjects and controls356 healthy subjects without ocular conditions that might affect visual function were categorized into 7 age groups. MethodsSubjects underwent comprehensive ocular examination of both eyes before enrollment. Using the TEMPO/IMOvifa automated perimeter (Topcon Healthcare/CREWT Medical Systems, Tokyo, Japan), each subject completed four binocular threshold visual field (VF) tests during a single visit: First, practice 24-2 and 10-2 tests were obtained from both eyes. Next, study 24-2 and 10-2 tests were obtained from both eyes. Test order of each sequence was randomized, and the tests were conducted under Standard Automated Perimetry testing conditions (SAP): Goldmann stimulus size III, 3183 cd/m2 maximum stimulus intensity, and background intensity of 10 cd/m2, using AIZE-Rapid test strategy. Standard VF reliability indices were assessed. For each subject, 24-2 and 10-2 test results from one randomly selected eye were analyzed. Main Outcome MeasuresPerimetric threshold sensitivity and reference limits for each test analysis parameter. ResultsThe ages of the study cohort were widely distributed, with a mean age (SD) of 52.3 (18.5) years. Sex assignment was 44.0% male and 56.0% female. The majority of subjects self-identified as White (67.4%), followed by Black or African American (13.5%) and Asian (8.7%), with 14.6% self-identified as Hispanic or Latino ethnicity. Mean sensitivity (MS) (SD) was 29.1 (1.3) decibels (dB) for the 24-2 and 32.4 (1.0) dB for the 10-2 test. For the 24-2 and 10-2, MS (SD) age-related changes averaged -0.06 (0.01) dB and -0.05 (0.01) dB per year, respectively. The normal range of pointwise threshold sensitivity increased with eccentricity and showed asymmetry around the mean, particularly notable in the 24-2 test. Mean (SD) binocular test duration was 3.18 (0.38) minutes (1 minute 35 seconds per eye) for the 24-2 test and 3.58 (0.43) minutes (1minute 47 seconds per eye) for the 10-2 test. ConclusionsA reference database for the TEMPO/IMOvifa perimeter was established, highlighting the significance of considering both age and stimulus eccentricity in interpreting threshold visual field test results.

Deep learning-based image analysis for filamentous and floc-forming bacteria in wastewater treatment

In municipal wastewater treatment, effective secondary clarification relies on the balance between floc-forming bacteria and filamentous bacteria. Consequently, comprehensive and real-time monitoring of this balance will enable reliable operation of biological wastewater treatment. This research presents an artificial intelligence (AI)-based approach for the classification of filamentous and floc-forming bacteria in microscopic images using deep learning. To provide ground truth labeling, an automated rule-based segmentation algorithm was developed using color and morphology criteria along with supplementary filtration steps to enhance the precision of filamentous and floc-forming bacteria identification. The segmentation algorithm demonstrated reliable detection and categorization of bacteria across varying background intensities and effectively recognized intricate microbial configurations. Subsequently, the supervised deep learning model was trained on the segmented images and constructed with an encoder/decoder architecture. Machine training with only 68 microscopic images demonstrated successful classification of the filamentous and floc-forming bacteria with a 97.8 % accuracy. In addition, qualitative evaluation demonstrated that the deep learning model could generalize machine understanding across diverse scenarios and discern misclassified filamentous bacteria accurately. The proposed model stands as a promising automated tool for real-time quantification of filamentous and floc-forming bacteria in bioreactors and clarifiers, offering the potential for reliable operation as well as immediate actions for sludge bulking and membrane fouling problems.

Defect-Engineered Metal-Organic Frameworks as Nanocarriers for Pharmacotherapy: Insights into Intracellular Dynamics at The Single Particle Level.

Nanoscale Metal-Organic Frameworks (nanoMOFs) are widely implemented in a host of assays involving drug delivery, biosensing catalysis, and bioimaging. However, the cell pathways and cell fate remain poorly understood. Here, a new fluorescent nanoMOF integrating ATTO 655 into surface defects of colloidal UiO-66 is synthesized, allowing to track the spatiotemporal localization of Single nanoMOF in live cells. Density functional theory reveals the stronger binding of ATTO 655 to the Zr6 cluster nodes compared with phosphate and Alendronate Sodium. Parallelized tracking of the spatiotemporal localization of thousands of nanoMOFs and analysis using machine learning platforms reveals whether nanoMOFs remain outside as well as their cellular internalization pathways. To quantitatively assess their colocalization with endo/lysosomal compartments, a colocalization proxy approach relying on the nanoMOF detection of particles in one channel to the signal in the corresponding endo/lysosomal compartments channel, considering signal versus local background intensity ratio and signal-to-noise ratio is developed. This strategy mitigates colocalization value inflation from high or low signal expression in endo/lysosomal compartments. The results accurately measure the nanoMOFs' colocalization from early to late endosomes and lysosomes and emphasize the importance of understanding their intracellular dynamics based on single-particle tracking for optimal and safe drug delivery.

In-line PIV Using a Schlieren System

"The article describes recent tests and developments of PIV recording and evaluation techniques that take advantage of strong forward scattering of tracer particles by in-line recording set ups. By collimating the light of a low-power light source between a pair of schlieren mirrors the observation area is increased to more than 350 mm. The same setup allows for schlieren recording of density gradients. The in-line imaging arrangements have a relatively high background intensity level on which brighter particle images can be detected. Ideally this background is constant in time such that it can be removed through subtraction. The use of forward scattering has a significant influence on the required pulse energy of the light source used. Typically, sufficient illumination is achieved with about 1% of the pulse energy that would normally be used for a conventional orthogonal PIV arrangement employing a laser light sheet. "

Raman spectroscopy of Ryugu particles and their extracted residues: Fluorescence background characteristics and similarities to CI chondrites

AbstractWe present here an investigation of Ryugu particles recovered by the Hayabusa2 space mission and their extracted carbonaceous acid residues using Raman spectroscopy. Raman parameters of Ryugu intact grains and their acid residues are characterized by broad D (defect induced) and G (graphite) band widths, indicating the presence of polyaromatic carbonaceous matter with low thermal maturity. Raman spectra of Ryugu particles and CI (type 1) chondrites exhibit stronger laser‐induced fluorescence backgrounds compared to Type 2 and Type 3 carbonaceous chondrites. The high fluorescence signatures and wide bandwidths of the D and G bands of Ryugu intact grains are similar to the Raman spectra observed in CI chondrites, reflecting the low structural order of their aromatic carbonaceous matter, and strengthening the link between Ryugu particles and CI chondrites. The high fluorescence background intensity of the Ryugu particles is due to multiple causes, but it is likely that the relative abundance of geometry‐bearing macromolecular organic matter in total organic carbon contents makes a large contribution to the fluorescence intensities. Locally observed high fluorescence in the acid‐extracted residues of Ryugu is due to nitrogen‐bearing outlier phase. The high fluorescence signature is one consequence of the low degree of thermal maturity of the organic matter and supports evidence that the Ryugu particles have escaped significant parent body thermal metamorphism.

Enhancing the Segmentation Accuracy of the Otsu Method for Calculating Blood Vessel Rupture Volumes in CT-Scan Images

The precise quantification of cerebral hemorrhage volume assumes paramount significance, given its consequential impact on subsequent medical interventions. While antecedent scholarly endeavors have undertaken cerebral hemorrhage volume computations, the attendant accuracy remains amenable to refinement. The main contribution to this research is the development of a rectangle algorithm using the Otsu method, which can be used to calculate the total volume of brain hemorrhage in CT-Scan images of the human brain. The present investigation seeks to augment the segmentation paradigm inherent to the Otsu method, thereby advancing the precision of cerebral hemorrhage volume assessments. The Otsu method is conceived with the purpose of automating the segmentation of the hemorrhagic domain through the determination of threshold values. The refinement of the Otsu method’s accuracy is effectuated by the formulation of an algorithm aimed at maximizing the mean discrepancy between object and background intensities within the object image, predicated upon the ascertained threshold values. These determined thresholds subsequently govern the transformation of grayscale images into binary format, achieved through the quotient of the threshold value and the mean variance, thereby amplifying segmentation precision. The incorporation of variance and mean values in the binarization of grayscale images affords adaptability in threshold modulation commensurate with the intensity spectrum of the image. The research corpus leverages CT-Scan images sourced from RSUP M. Djamil Padang, West Sumatra, encompassing a compendium of 100 image slices culled from a quintet of patients. Empirical findings attest to the fortification of the Otsu method in the segmentation milieu, substantiating the augmentation of threshold value accuracy. This enhancement is conspicuously manifest in the outcomes of segmentation tests, underscoring the superior efficacy of the Otsu method in discerning between objects and backgrounds. The corollary effect is a discernibly more accurate computation of volumes employing the Otsu-T methodology. The import of this research rests in its successful establishment of automated threshold values and the concomitant elevation of segmentation precision.

Revisiting stochastic gravitational wave background in the strong signal case

Weak-signal limit is often used in estimating stochastic gravitational-wave background (SGWB) intensities. This approximation fails and the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) can be much weaker when background signals are loud compared to the detector noise. In this work, we find that this issue is especially significant when dealing with networks of detectors that are widely separated. For the TianQin + LISA network, the SNR estimated under the weak-signal limit might be off by as large as an order of magnitude. Contour plots of SNR over the parameter spaces are also presented to indicate regions that will be affected by this correction. Our results suggest that DA and DB type extragalactic double white dwarfs may yield an SGWB with SNR surpassing 100 after 1 year of operation in weak-signal limit scenario, with a redshift-independent merger rate of about 500Mpc−3Myr−1. In fact, this value falls significantly below the necessary threshold. Similar influences arise for first-order phase transitions, yet pinning down the detectable parameters remains formidable due to model uncertainties.