Background Beliefs Research Articles

How do you assert a graph? Towards an account of depictions in scientific testimony

AbstractI extend the literature on norms of assertion to the ubiquitous use of graphs in scientific papers and presentations, which I term “graphical testimony.” On my account, the testimonial presentation of a graph involves commitment to both (a) the in‐context reliability of the graph's framing devices and (b) the perspective‐relative accuracy of the graph's content. Despite apparent disagreements between my account and traditional accounts of assertion, the two are compatible and I argue that we should expect a similar pattern of commitments in a set of cases that extends beyond the graphical one. I end by demonstrating that the account resolves apparent tensions between the demands of honesty and the common scientific practice of presenting idealized or simplified graphs: these “distortions” can be honest so long as there's the right kind of alignment between the distortion and the background beliefs and values of the audience.

Legalization of LGBT Marriage: Case Study from Vietnam

LGBT marriage is a legal union between two individuals of the same sex, including lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people. This type of marriage recognizes the equal rights of all people to marry regardless of their sexual orientation or gender identity. In Vietnam, the legal status of LGBT marriage has been the subject of considerable discussion and debate. Although the country has made significant strides in improving the rights of LGBT people, there is still a lack of official legal recognition for same-sex marriage. To date, same-sex marriage has not been explicitly legalized nor fully protected under Vietnamese law. This means that although same-sex marriages are not criminalized, and people have their free will to live together and hold ceremonies, yet these marriages do not hold the same legal status and rights as compared to heterosexual marriages. Vietnam has a strong cultural background and conservative beliefs; these play a crucial role in society in respect to the views within it when it comes to LGBT individuals. Society is becoming more tolerant; however, the LGBT community members are still judged with a high rate of discrimination. Although acceptance still significantly varies between regions and different age groups, public opinion is indeed softening, especially among the young. Due to the legal recognition, LGBT marriages provided them with equal legal rights and responsibilities concerning property, inheritance, adoption, and healthcare, just like heterosexual couples. On the other hand, this also can be regarded as another critical step to social inclusion and the fight against discrimination. This research will discuss the current situation of same-sex marriage in contemporary Vietnam with the aim of completing the picture of the LGBT community. The research study will also interview 22 LGBT individuals and a survey of close to 200 participants.

Accepting Exclusion: Examining the (Un)Intended Consequences of Data-Driven Campaigns

Using citizens’ data not only enables precise targeting of campaign messages online, but also the deliberate exclusion of certain groups of citizens. This study asks (a) to what extent have citizens been excluded from political (online) ads during the Dutch 2021 and 2023 election campaigns and (b) how acceptable citizens find the practice of exclusion. To answer these questions, we use data from the Meta Ad Targeting dataset to investigate any employed exclusion criteria by parties and rely on survey data collected during the 2023 Dutch general election to learn about citizens’ opinions. Our study reveals that political parties across the spectrum allocated less budget to targeting and excluding citizens in 2023 compared to 2021. Predominantly, exclusion is based on age, gender, and place of residence, with criteria such as political views, migration background, and religious beliefs being relatively uncommon. Despite citizens considering all forms of exclusion unacceptable, they view exclusion based on political views as the most tolerable. Moreover, individuals leaning towards the political right exhibit greater acceptance of exclusion, particularly based on migration background. In scrutinizing the extent of citizen exclusion from political campaign messaging and citizens’ perceptions, we contribute to the discourse on the unintended consequences of data-driven campaigning.

The limits of experience: Dogmatism and moral epistemology

AbstractLet “phenomenal dogmatism” be the thesis that some experiences provide some beliefs with immediate prima facie justification, and do so purely in virtue of their phenomenal character. A basic question‐mark looms over phenomenal dogmatism: Why should the fact that a person is visited by some phenomenal feel suggest the likely truth of a belief? In this paper, I press this challenge, arguing that perceptually justified beliefs are justified not purely by perceptual experiences’ phenomenology, but also because we have justified second‐order background beliefs to the effect that the occurrence of certain perceptual experiences is indicative of the likely truth of certain corresponding beliefs. To bring this out, I contrast “perceptual dogmatism” with “moral dogmatism”: the thesis that some emotional experiences provide some moral beliefs with immediate prima facie justification, and do so purely in virtue of their phenomenal character. I argue that moral dogmatism is much less antecedently appealing, precisely because the counterpart second‐order beliefs here are much less plausible.

Conspiracy mentality in autistic and non-autistic individuals

ABSTRACT Background Belief in conspiracy theories has emerged across times and cultures. While previous accounts attributed conspiracy beliefs to mental health conditions, accumulating research suggests that conspiracy theories are common among the general population. In the present study we examined whether conspiracy mentality – that is, a general predisposition to believe conspiracy theories – differed between a group of autistic adults and a general population sample. Methods This study included an autistic sample (n = 682) and a general population sample (n = 4358). Participants’ conspiracy mentality was measured using the Conspiracy Mentality Questionnaire (CMQ). Results A one-way ANCOVA (controlling for participants’ age, gender, educational level, and ethnicity) revealed no difference in conspiracy mentality between an autism and a community sample. Conclusions The current study suggests that being autistic, or having more autistic traits, does not predict conspiracy mentality. These findings underscore that autism does not predispose people to conspiracy theories and suggest that autism is neither a risk factor for, nor a protective factor against, conspiracy mentality.

On the Ethical Priority of Problem Solving in Case‐Based Teacher Ethics: Grounding an Anti‐Oppressive Approach

AbstractA central problem for phronetic case‐based approaches to the ethics of teaching lies in the proper determination of normative ethical problems. Judgments about the character of normative ethical problems depend in part on background beliefs about what is (or is not) of ethical value. Thus, to distinguish genuinely normative ethical problems, teachers seem to first require knowledge of what is of ethical value, which practical problems themselves cannot generate. To resolve this practical and theoretical problem, Nicolas Tanchuk and Alyssa Emery argue for a Deweyan approach to teacher ethics that asserts two central theses: First, negatively, that inductive evidence warrants skepticism about any normative theory grounded in external reasons — (purported) reasons that are actually or possibly disconnected from an agent's motivational set of beliefs, desires, and dispositions. Second, that a cognitive and affective orientation toward solving problems through learning survives skepticism about external ethical reasons, grounding the commitments of many anti‐oppressive teacher educators.

Radio Caledonia: Scottish Nationalism and Nazi Radio Propaganda, 1940–1942

In June 1940, from somewhere in Scotland, a radio station named Radio Caledonia began to broadcast Scottish nationalist, anti-government and anti-war propaganda to Britain, on behalf of an organisation called the Scottish Peace Front. Its objective was to bring about Scotland's exit from the war, an end to the capitalist system, and the creation of an independent, socialist Scotland. The speaker and scriptwriter behind Radio Caledonia was Donald Grant, a Scot, since dubbed Scotland's Lord Haw-Haw. But Radio Caledonia was only superficially a Scottish nationalist station. In reality, the Scottish Peace Front was an entirely fictitious group, and Radio Caledonia's programmes were made in and broadcast from Berlin under the direction of Joseph Goebbels, as one element of his propaganda campaign against Britain. Radio Caledonia, like other similar ‘secret stations’ commissioned by Goebbels, was conceived of by the Nazi Propaganda Ministry, and its broadcasts written and produced by British renegades. This paper looks at Grant's background and political beliefs, the Nazi propaganda organisation within which he worked in Berlin, and the broadcast output of Radio Caledonia. It concludes that far from being an authentically nationalist or socialist enterprise, Radio Caledonia was devised by German Nazis and British fascists as a tool to achieve their shared aim of bringing about an end to Britain's involvement in the war.

(Dis)confirming theories of consciousness and their predictions: towards a Lakatosian consciousness science.

The neuroscience of consciousness is undergoing a significant empirical acceleration thanks to several adversarial collaborations that intend to test different predictions of rival theories of consciousness. In this context, it is important to pair consciousness science with confirmation theory, the philosophical discipline that explores the interaction between evidence and hypotheses, in order to understand how exactly, and to what extent, specific experiments are challenging or validating theories of consciousness. In this paper, I examine this intricate relationship by adopting a Lakatosian lens. I propose that Lakatos' philosophy of science can aid consciousness scientists to better interpret adversarial collaborations in consciousness science and, more generally, to develop a confirmation-theoretic model of theory-appraisal in this field. I do so by suggesting that such a model be built upon three Lakatos-inspired criteria for assessing the relationship between empirical evidence and theoretical predictions: (i) the model should represent the 'distinction between prediction and accommodation'; (ii) the model should represent the 'structural relevance' of predictions; (iii) the model should represent the 'boldness' of the predictions. I argue that a Lakatosian model of theory-appraisal has both normative and descriptive virtues, and can move the debate forward by acknowledging that theory-appraisal needs to consider the diachronic development of theories, their logical structure, and their relationship with background beliefs and knowledge.

Internalized stigma related to COVID-19 and its psychosocial and mental health correlates: a multicentric health facility based observational study from Nepal.

The COVID-19 pandemic has led to physical and psychological complications and social consequences in the form of illness-related stigma. This study aimed (1) to assess the sociodemographic and clinical variable, as well as COVID-19 related knowledge and perception of persons admitted for COVID-19/Suspected COVID-19 in Nepal, (2) to determine their levels of COVID-19- related internalized stigma, depression, and anxiety symptoms, and (3) to evaluate the correlates of COVID-19- related internalized stigma. It was a cross-sectional exploratory study with a convenience sample of 395 participants (306 confirmed cases, 89 suspected cases) conducted between July-October 2020 in four health facilities in Madhesh and Lumbini provinces of Nepal. We used a semi-structured questionnaire to assess sociodemographic details, clinical information, COVID-19-related knowledge, perception, COVID-19-related internalized stigma, and the Hamilton Anxiety Depression Scale (HADS) in Nepali language. Descriptive statistics, correlation analyses, and linear regression analyses were performed. The level of statistical significance was considered at p < 0.05. Around 23.3% of the patients had anxiety symptoms, 32.9% had depressive symptoms, and 20.3% had high COVID-19-related internalized stigma (mean ISMI score: 2.51-4.00). Linear regression analyses showed a significant positive association of COVID-19-related internalized stigma total score, with the following eight factors, i.e., no income in the past one month (p = 0.013), below average socioeconomic status (p = 0.004), anxiety symptoms (p = <0.001), depressive symptoms (p = <0.001), recent testing positive for COVID-19 (p = <0.001), involuntary admission (p = <0.001), prior experience of being in isolation and quarantine (p = 0.045), and those who blame others for COVID-19 (p = 0.025). COVID-19 survivors and suspects are vulnerable to symptoms of depression, anxiety, and COVID-19-related internalized stigma. For the first time from Nepal, our data suggests that COVID-19-related internalized stigma is associated with anxiety and depression symptoms, perceived below-average socioeconomic status, involuntary admission, prior experience of being in isolation and quarantine, recent COVID-19 positive report, self-blame, below-average socioeconomic status and no income in the past one month. Mitigating and preventing internalized stigma associated with a public health crisis such as COVID-19 is imperative by diagnosing and treating such mental health issues early and designing interventions and policies especially targeting vulnerable populations focusing on their economic background and socio-cultural beliefs.

Scepticism, evidential holism and the logic of demonic deception

AbstractSceptical arguments in epistemology typically employ sceptical hypotheses, which are rivals to our everyday beliefs so constructed that they fit exactly the evidence on which those beliefs are based. There are two ways of using a sceptical hypothesis to undermine an everyday belief, giving rise to two distinct sorts of sceptical argument: underdetermination‐based and closure‐based. However, both sorts of argument, as usually formulated in the literature, fall foul of evidential holism, for they ignore the crucial role of background beliefs. An analogy with the philosophy of science makes this point explicit. There is no simple way to “holism proof” the two sceptical arguments.

Rational factionalization for agents with probabilistically related beliefs

General epistemic polarization arises when the beliefs of a population grow further apart, in particular when all agents update on the same evidence. Epistemic factionalization arises when the beliefs grow further apart, but different beliefs also become correlated across the population. I present a model of how factionalization can emerge in a population of ideally rational agents. This kind of factionalization is driven by probabilistic relations between beliefs, with background beliefs shaping how the agents’ beliefs evolve in the light of new evidence. Moreover, I show that in such a model, the only possible outcomes from updating on identical evidence are general convergence or factionalization. Beliefs cannot spread out in all directions: if the beliefs overall polarize, then it must result in factionalization.

Koro: a socially-transmitted delusional belief

ABSTRACT Introduction Koro is a delusion whereby a man believes his penis is shrinking into his abdomen and this may result in his death. This socially-transmitted non-neuropsychological delusional belief occurs (in epidemic form) in South-East and South Asia. We investigated whether the two-factor theory of delusion could be applied to epidemic Koro. Methods We scrutinised the literature on epidemic Koro to isolate features relevant to the two questions that must be answered to provide a two-factor account: What could initially prompt the Koro delusional hypothesis? Why is this hypothesis adopted as a belief? Results We concluded that the Koro hypothesis is usually prompted by the surprising observation of actual penis shrinkage—but only if the man has access to background beliefs about Koro. Whether the hypothesis is then adopted as a belief will depend on individual factors such as prior belief in the Koro concept or limited formal education and sociocultural factors such as deference to culture, to media, or to rumours spread by word of mouth. Social transmission can influence how the first factor works and how the second factor works. Conclusion The two-factor theory of delusion can be applied to a socially-transmitted delusion that occurs in epidemic form.

Where do philosophers appeal to intuitions (if they do)?

AbstractIt might be that intuitions are central to philosophy, and it might be that this is true because when philosophers give case‐based arguments for philosophical claims (in published philosophy), the case verdict is typically (a) an intuited proposition and (b) either left undefended or defended on the grounds that it is an intuited proposition. This paper remains neutral on these global issues, however, and instead focuses on whether there is a nontrivial (or many‐membered) class of case‐based arguments in philosophy in which the case verdict is defended by appeal to background beliefs and not on the grounds that it is an intuited proposition. The paper argues that the answer is affirmative by examining seven such arguments that are referred to as “paradigm cases” of case‐based arguments in which the verdict is justified via an appeal to intuition.

‘The whole point of faith is not to know’: Jewish ultra-Orthodox students’ epistemological beliefs about science and religion

ABSTRACT Research on personal epistemology reveals how people’s epistemological beliefs about science intersect with their sociocultural background, cultural norms, and gender. Less is known, however, about how religious background and faith shape epistemological beliefs. The present study explores the epistemological beliefs of ultra-Orthodox (Haredi) Jewish students during their first days in academia using a combination of questionnaires and interviews. Comparing the questionnaires completed by students of Haredi and non-Haredi backgrounds showed significant differences in two out of four epistemological dimensions. Haredi students’ beliefs were more naïve and less sophisticated in that they conceived scientific knowledge as fixed and certain and relied on experts’ authority more than did non-Haredi students. In addition, the interviews explored strategies used by Haredi students to resolve or emphasise the potential tension between science and religion: collaboration, conflict, independent, and repression of contradictions. Their analysis reveals how students’ approaches are multifaced, develop within the interview context, and intersects with general beliefs about scientific knowledge. Finally, the article discusses how this study elaborates on previous studies about students’ epistemological beliefs, and offers educational implications, including promoting teachers’ awareness to their students’ beliefs and conducting interventions to help students reflect on them.

Educational Disparities in Gender Stereotypes and Beliefs: Examining Gender Interaction among Respondents in Ghana

Within various societies, individuals harbor gender stereotypes and beliefs that frequently shape perceptions and behaviors within intimate relationships. However, the extent to which individuals endorse or reject these stereotypes remains insufficiently explored. This study, utilizing a convenience sample of 303 respondents in Ghana, examined the interaction effects of gender on the relationship between educational background and gender stereotypes and beliefs—specifically focusing on the sexual submissiveness of women, emotional stereotypes about women, and sexual stereotypes about men. The results indicate an effect of gender in the relationships. Notably, ratings regarding emotional stereotypes about women were significantly higher among male respondents with a bachelor's degree, while being lowest among female respondents with a post-graduate degree. Similarly, ratings for sexual stereotypes about men were notably highest among female respondents with a bachelor's degree and lowest among female respondents with a post-graduate degree. Concerning beliefs about the sexual submissiveness of women, respondents with less than a bachelor's degree (i.e., high school/diploma) were more prone to endorse sexual submissiveness compared to those with a bachelor's or post-graduate degree. Additionally, men were more likely to endorse sexual submissiveness of women compared to women. The implications of these findings for theory, research, and policy are discussed.

Reasoning from background knowledge: Evaluating and explaining behaviour in Finnish rape judgments

According to explanationist theories of evidence, fact-finders reason by evaluating the ‘goodness’ of different narratives that explain the evidence. One standard is external coherence: does the narrative fit with what the fact-finder knows or assumes about the world? This study uses qualitative content analysis to examine how District Court judges draw inferences directly from ‘background knowledge’ in 119 Finnish rape cases and how these inferences are contested by dissenting and appellate judges. The results show that especially the complainant's behaviour was frequently evaluated against behavioural scripts and other background beliefs. Outspoken reliance on rape myths was relatively rare, and myths were explicitly resisted as often as they were relied upon. Where judges used stereotypical behaviour to support the rape complainant's testimony, this reasoning could be explained by the search for optimum (explanatory) coherence or the Finnish legal principle that a rape complainant's testimony requires supporting evidence. Judges also used estimates of prior probabilities to inform their reasoning; few behaviours are impossible, but some actions are ‘more coherent’ with rape than with non-rape, or vice versa. Accruing the type of knowledge necessary (and usually unavailable) for probabilistic reasoning is therefore necessary also for explanationist reasoning.

Research on the Artistic Forms and Connotations of Folk Witchcraft Culture in terms of Visual Representation: A Case Study of "Nan Huan Nü Xi" in Yixing

"Nan Huan Nü Xi" is a representative traditional folk dance in Yixing, which also holds significant importance in Nuo ritual ceremonies. Through centuries of evolution and inheritance, it has developed into an aesthetic manifestation that combines historical culture with modern trends, with its performance costumes being particularly representative. This paper aims to analyze and summarize the expressive costumes, artistic features, and inherent folk culture of the current inheritance of "Nan Huan Nü Xi," delving into its geographical attributes, social background, and religious beliefs. The research demonstrates that while preserving the core elements of inheritance, the costumes of "Nan Huan Nü Xi" in Yixing constantly adjust themselves to the aesthetic tendencies of the era, reflecting the profound historical significance and vitality of folk dance represented by "Nan Huan Nü Xi," as well as the transition of traditional folk art from being "god-centered" to being "human-centered."

Too humble for words

It’s widely held that a lack of intellectual humility is part of the reason why flagrantly unjustified beliefs proliferate. In this paper, I argue that an excess of humility also plays a role in allowing for the spread of misinformation. Citing experimental evidence, I show that inducing intellectual humility causes people inappropriately to lower their confidence in beliefs that are actually justified for them. In these cases, they manifest epistemic humility in ways that make them epistemically worse off. I argue that epistemic humility may fail to promote better beliefs because it functions for us against the background of our individualistic theory of responsible epistemic agency: until we reject such theories, intellectual humility is as much a problem as a solution to epistemic ills. Virtue epistemology is inadequate as a response to unjustified beliefs if it does not look beyond the virtues to our background beliefs.

Can journal reviewers dependably assess rigour, significance, and originality in theoretical papers? Evidence from physics

AbstractPeer review is a key gatekeeper for academic journals, attempting to block inadequate submissions or correcting them to a publishable standard, as well as improving those that are already satisfactory. The three key aspects of research quality are rigour, significance, and originality but no prior study has assessed whether journal reviewers are ever able to judge these effectively. In response, this article compares reviewer scores for these aspects for theoretical articles in the SciPost Physics journal. It also compares them with Italian research assessment exercise physics reviewer agreement scores. SciPost Physics theoretical articles give a nearly ideal case: a theoretical aspect of a mature science, for which suitable reviewers might comprehend the entire paper. Nevertheless, intraclass correlations between the first two reviewers for the three core quality scores were similar and moderate, 0.36 (originality), 0.39 (significance), and 0.40 (rigour), so there is no aspect that different reviewers are consistent about. Differences tended to be small, with 86% of scores agreeing or differing by 1 on a 6-point scale. Individual reviewers were most likely to give similar scores for significance and originality (Spearman 0.63), and least likely to for originality and validity (Spearman 0.38). Whilst a lack of norm referencing is probably the biggest reason for differences between reviewers, others include differing background knowledge, understanding, and beliefs about valid assumptions. The moderate agreement between reviewers on the core aspects of scientific quality, including rigour, in a nearly ideal case is concerning for the security of the wider academic record.

Epistemic and Aesthetic Conflict

Abstract Do epistemic and aesthetic values ever conflict? The answer might appear to be no, given that background knowledge generally enhances aesthetic experience, and aesthetic experience in turn generates new knowledge. As Keats writes, ‘Beauty is truth, truth beauty’ (Keats, 1996). Contra this line of thought, I argue that epistemic and aesthetic values can conflict when we over-rely on aesthetically enhancing background beliefs. The true and the beautiful can pull in different directions, forcing us to choose between flavours of normativity.