Bach Ma National Park Research Articles

Exploring Relationships Between Nature-Based Destination Attractiveness, Satisfaction, Perceived COVID-19 Risk, and Revisit Intention in Bach Ma National Park, Vietnam

Exploring Relationships Between Nature-Based Destination Attractiveness, Satisfaction, Perceived COVID-19 Risk, and Revisit Intention in Bach Ma National Park, Vietnam

Pisachini planthoppers of Vietnam: new records of Pisacha and a new Goniopsarites species from Central Vietnam (Hemiptera, Fulgoromorpha, Nogodinidae).

Two planthopper species of the family Nogodinidae are added to the fauna of Vietnam, both from two localities in Thua Thien-Hue Province: Bach Ma National Park and Phong Dien District. The first species belongs to Goniopsarites Meng, Wang & Wang, 2014, G.mientrunganus Constant & Pham, sp. nov., and the second belongs to Pisacha Distant, 1906, P.yinggensis Meng, Wang & Wang, 2014. Pisachayinggensis was previously recorded from Hainan Island, China. These new records greatly extend the distribution of both genera, which were known from southern China, Hainan and North Vietnam, to the south, reaching the mid area of Central Vietnam. Sexual dimorphism is reported in P.yinggensis for the first time. Illustrations of habitus and male terminalia of the new species are given as well as distribution maps and photographs of live specimens and their habitat. The family Nogodinidae now comprises nine species in Vietnam, with three of them present in Bach Ma National Park.

Green synthesis of silver nanomaterials using Ganoderma Lucidum extract as reducing agent and stabilizer with ultrasonic assistance and application as an antibacterial agent

Synthesis of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) using plant extracts extracted from Ganoderma lucidum in the buffer zone of Bach Ma National Park, Vietnam is a simple, convenient, economical, and environmentally friendly method. This study describes the biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles in both cases with and without ultrasonic assistance using Ganoderma lucidum extract as a reducing and protective agent. Transmission electron microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy were used to characterize the as-synthesized AgNPs. Compared to the heating reflux method, the proposed ultrasonic wave assisted heating reflux method produced AgNPs had higher efficiency, smaller and more uniform particle size 6.08 ± 1.80 nm of nm in a short synthesis time period. The antibacterial and antifungal properties of ultrasonically synthesized silver nanomaterials (US-AgNPs) were also investigated. US-AgNPs are important nanomaterials that can find many good applications in practice.

The tropiduchid planthopper genus Connelicita Wang & Bourgoin, 2015: two new species from Central Vietnam and new records (Hemiptera, Fulgoromorpha, Tropiduchidae).

Two new planthopper species of the tropiduchid genus Connelicita Wang & Bourgoin, 2015, C.bachmaensis Constant & Pham, sp. nov., and C.phongdienensis Constant & Pham, sp. nov. are described from Bach Ma National Park and from the Centre for Conservation of Vietnam Natural Resources and Rescue of Animals and plants, Phong Dien District in Thua Thien-Hue Province, respectively. These new records greatly extend the distribution of the genus, which was known from southern China (Guangxi) and North Vietnam, to the south, reaching the mid area of Central Vietnam. New records are provided for C.haiphongensis Wang & Zhang, 2015, extending the distribution of the species from Cat Ba Island to a large zone in North Vietnam. Illustrations of habitus, details, and male genitalia are given as well as a distribution map and photographs of the habitat. An identification key to the species of Vietnam is provided. The genus Connelicita now comprises five species.

Metapetrocosmea alba (Gesneriaceae), a new species from central Vietnam

Based on morphological comparison and literature consultation, a new species, Metapetrocosmea alba (Gesneriaceae), is confirmed from Bach Ma National Park, central Vietnam. This new species is similar to M. poilanei, but differs by its longer and white funnelform corolla and three staminodes. And it is easy to distinguish the new species from M. cycnostyla by its distinct stem, and the shape and size of leaf blade. A detailed morphological description and photographic illustration of the new species are provided along with ecological information and geographic distribution.

An assessment of turtle communities in Bach Ma National Park, Vietnam

Most of the extraordinary biodiversity richness of South-East Asian countries is concentrated in the national parks and other Protected Areas, with species-rich turtle communities surviving mostly in these reserves where their natural habitats are better preserved. However, very few studies have documented the turtle species richness of the various Protected Areas in Vietnam, which is not only one of the hotspots of chelonian diversity in the world but also one of the countries where their exploitation is the highest. Here, the diversity of turtles is studied in the Bach Ma National Park in central Vietnam, mainly characterised by forested hills and mountains, with ponds and streams of various shapes and structures. The study was carried out by conducting (i) semi-structured interviews of hunters recruited through a snow-ball procedure in local villages, (ii) inspection of turtle individuals in their hands, (iii) field surveys along random transects inspecting the various microhabitats used by these reptiles. We observed a total of 15 species, out of which 14 (93.3%) are threatened, based on IUCN Red List. A natural hybrid of Cuora bourreti × C. mouhotii obsti (Cuora «serrata») was observed. Three species (Cuora bourreti, Manouria impressa, Platysternon megacephalum) were the most frequently encountered species according to our interviewees. We conclude that, in order to enhance the conservation status of the turtle communities at the local level, it would be important (i) to increase the number of rangers patrolling the study area in the rainy season (from April to September) and (ii) to list the hunter's names in the villages surrounding the Bach Ma National Park and to convince them to sign an agreement with the local authorities to avoid hunting turtles within the Protected Area.

International Tourists' Willingness to Pay for A Wildlife Conservation Program: A Case Study of Northern Yellow-cheeked Gibbons in Bach Ma National Park, Vietnam

Extending protected areas has enabled global species and habitat protection, especially for endangered species. In addition, understanding social preferences for species protection is essential to contribute to the biodiversity conservation efforts of protected areas. The main purpose of the study was to investigate the preferences of international tourists towards the protection of the northern yellow-cheeked gibbon (Nomascus annamensis) through a proposed wildlife conservation program in Bach Ma National Park, Central Vietnam. Data for the study was collected from a face-to-face survey of 361 randomly selected foreign tourists visiting Bach Ma National Park. By using the dichotomous choice contingent valuation approach, we estimate international tourists' willingness to pay (WTP) for the proposed conservation program of gibbons and identify elements that influence their WTP for the conservation program. We found that international tourists strongly support conserving gibbon populations in the Bach Ma. The findings from the logistic regression model in the study reveal that the respondents' bid level, education, knowledge, biodiversity conservation, climate change, and revisit variables were all significantly predictive of WTP. The estimated mean WTP amount for one-time funding of the species conservation program was US$7.83 per international tourist. The obtained results of this study suggest that policy-makers and managers of national parks should consider the significance of international visitors' support for gibbon conservation efforts when designing and developing their social strategies, programs, and policies for protecting nature and preserving biodiversity, particularly with regard to tourism segmentation in protected areas.

NEW RECORDS ON DISTRIBUTION AND HOSTS OF Brachytarsina cucullata AND Raymondia pseudopagodarum (DIPTERA: STREBLIDAE) IN VIETNAM

Bat flies are highly specialized ectoparasites of the superfamily Hippoboscoidea and only associate with bats. They were rarely documented in Vietnam due to limited study in the country. Between 2017 and 2020, we conducted a series of field surveys in six localities in northern and central Vietnam with an emphasis on bat flies. Bats were captured using mist nets, harp traps, and handnets then morphologically identified following literatures relevant to the bats of each study site. Bat flies were collected using fine forceps and preserved in 70% alcohol for morphological identification. Twelve individuals of Brachytarsina cucullata and thirty-five individuals of Raymondia pseudopagodarum of the family Streblidae were collected over the surveys. Of which, B. cucullata is new to two localities in northern Vietnam (Nham Duong Mountain Area and Ha Long Bay) while R. pseudopagodarum is new to five localities in both northern and southern Vietnam (Bach Ma National Park, Cat Ba National Park, Ha Long Bay, Cu Lao Cham Island and Sop Cop Nature Reserve). Within Vietnam, B. cucullata and R. pseudopagodarum were only recorded from Cat Ba National Park and Vu Quang National Park, respectively. Notably, the previous records from Vietnam did not include either description or illustration. We here provide brief descriptions and illustrated photos of each species for morphological identification of these two bat fly species. A map showing the distributional records of each species is also included in this paper.

Species Composition Diversity of Chlorophyta and Charophyta Phyla in Bach Ma National Park, Thua Thien Hue Province

This study was conducted to investigate the species composition of Chlorophyta and Charophyta in Bach Ma National Park, Thua Thien Hue province. Here, we identified 45 species and subspecies, belonging to 17 genera, 7 families, and 4 orders. Charophyta was the most diverse phylum, with 75.56% total species. The dominant orders and families are Desmidiales and Desmidiaceae. The most diverse genus belongs to Cosmarium (15), Euastrum (5) and Scenedesmus (5). Micrasterias foliacea Bailey ex Ralfs and Cosmarium pardalis Cohn are tropical algae, while transitional species and temperate species are also present such as Cosmarium pachydermum Lund. var. indicum Iyenf. et Vim Bai and Euastrum jenneri W. Archer, respectively. The dominant group is described as Desmidiales with Chlorococcales (Ch. I) index ranging from 0.087 to 0.19 in Thuy dien Dam and Thuy dien bridge, while there are several species of Sphaeropleales with Ch. I index of 0.67 in Hoang Yen stream.
 

Morphological and molecular characterization of Distichochlamys citrea M.F. Newman in Bach Ma National Park, Thua Thien Hue Province, Vietnam

Abstract. Chen TV, Tuan ND, Triet NT, An NH, Nguyen PTT, Hai NTT, Nhi NTT, Co NQ, Nhi HTH, Huong HV, Phuong TTB, Nhung NTA. 2022. Morphological and molecular characterization of Distichochlamys citrea M.F. Newman in Bach Ma National Park, Thua Thien Hue Province, Vietnam. Biodiversitas 23: 2066-2079. Distichochlamys citrea (Black Ginger or gung den) is a medicinal plant endemic to Vietnam. However, this species is not easily identified due to the lack of a detailed description. Therefore, this study aimed to characterize morphological and molecular aspects of D. citrea from Bach Ma National Park, Vietnam. Six representative plants were selected for the following analyses. Macromorphological features were observed and compared with previous studies. The rhizomes, roots, petioles, and leaves were then histologically analyzed using iodine green-carmine staining. The ground rhizomes and leaves were also microscopically examined for powder characteristics. Finally, the D. citrea DNA barcode was amplified by Internal Transcribe Spacer (ITS) primers. Macromorphologically, D. citrea differs from other Distichochlamys species. Black Ginger, particularly, has elongated rhizomes (with scars from the shoots of previous years), green leaves, spread inflorescences, and yellow labellum (with deep slits). Additionally, D. citrea’s micromorphological structures (epidermis, exodermis, hypodermis, cortex, endodermis, and root pith) are similar to the genus Zingiber. However, the absence of calcium oxalate and silica crystals in the root is unique and can be used to distinguish this plant from other Zingiberaceae members. The sequenced amplicons (96.54% similar to Genbank's D. citrea ITS) demonstrated the ITS marker’s ability to identify Black Ginger.

Advancement of Microwave-Assisted Biosynthesis for Preparing Au Nanoparticles Using Ganoderma lucidum Extract and Evaluation of Their Catalytic Reduction of 4-Nitrophenol.

This study describes the biosynthesis of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) using the extract of Ganoderma lucidum in the buffer zone of Bach Ma National Park, Vietnam, as a reducing and protecting agent using microwave-assisted synthesis. The as-synthesized AuNPs were characterized using transmission electron microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Compared to the conventional method, the proposed microwave-assisted method produced AuNPs having a small size of 22.07 ± 8.11 nm in a short synthesis time period. In excess NaBH4, the as-prepared AuNPs demonstrated good catalytic activity for reducing 4-nitrophenol to 4-aminophenol. Furthermore, AuNPs demonstrated improved reusability after four cycles. The pseudo-first-order apparent rate constant was estimated to be 0.086 min–1 at 303 K. Both the catalytic mechanism and reaction path of reduction were proposed. Moreover, activation energy and thermodynamic parameters, including activation enthalpy and entropy, were examined.

Synthesis of Biogenic Silver Nanoparticles with Eco-Friendly Processes Using Ganoderma lucidum Extract and Evaluation of Their Theranostic Applications

The green synthesis of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) using plant extract, the cost-effective solution, and the abundance and environmental issue have been gaining much attention to scientists. Ganoderma lucidum (GL) commonly known as Lingzhi in Chinese and Reishi in Japanese, with a proven anticancer benefit, is discovered in the buffer zone of Bach Ma National Park, Nam Dong district, Thua Thien Hue province. In this work, the AgNPs were synthesized in a simple and effective biochemical reduction process using GL which is one of the biological organisms, as a reducing and stable agent. The optimum conditions of various experimental parameters such as pH, reaction time, concentration, and temperature were investigated. Obtained AgNPs were characterized by UV-Vis, FTIR, SEM, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The effects of AgNP/GL materials and GL aqueous extraction on the antiproliferative activities of HepG2 and MCF-7 cells were studied. The novel AgNP/GL-based multicomponent suspension is a key compound that could find a good application in the medical and pharmaceutical sciences.

New taxa of extant and fossil primitive moths in South-East Asia and their biogeographic significance (Lepidoptera, Micropterigidae, Agathiphagidae, Lophocoronidae)

We report some surprising recent distributional range extensions of one extant genus and two more families of primitive moths discovered in amber fossils from South-east Asia which were previously only known from Australia and/or the southwestern Pacific, with the possible exception of an undescribed Siberian fossil attributed to Lophocoronidae. During entomological field work in rain forests of central Vietnam a new species of Micropterigidae was discovered. It is described herein as Aureopterix bachmaensis sp. nov. based on male and female specimens collected at light in the Bach-Ma National Park. The identification was corroborated by a molecular analysis. This is the first record of this genus in the Northern Hemisphere, previously thought to be restricted to the Australian Region (including New Caledonia). First results of investigations of Burmese amber inclusions now reveal the presence of the Australian Region families Agathiphagidae and Lophocoronidae in the Cretaceous of Asia. The fossil taxon Agathiphagama perdita gen. nov., sp. nov. is established on the basis of two females and this is assigned to Agathiphagidae. The fossil genus Acanthocorona gen. nov. is established in Lophocoronidae and includes seven species described here as A. skalskiisp. nov., A. bowangisp. nov., A. muellerisp. nov., A. kuranishiisp. nov., A. sattlerisp. nov., A. spiniferasp. nov. and A. wichardisp. nov. The new species can be distinguished by the male genitalia which are illustrated together with wing venation and other morphological characters. The disjunct ranges of these taxa are discussed in a historical biogeographic context. Vicariance and dispersal hypotheses explaining the disjunct pattern are discussed. The discovery of these new species suggests a broader ancestral range of Aureopterix, Agathiphagidae and Lophocoronidae. Their extant ranges may be regarded as remnants or relicts of a wider distribution in the Mesozoic, or at least in the case of Aureopterix they could be the results of recent or ancient dispersal processes, since the calibration of molecular splits does not so far accord with plate tectonics.

Local soil knowledge, sustainable agriculture and soil conservation in Central Vietnam

Efforts to support farmers living near forests to achieve sustainable agriculture and natural resource conservation have predominantly focused on services or schemes such as agricultural extension and community-based forest management, with little attention being focused on farmers' local soil knowledge (LSK). This paper provides insights into farmers' LSK, their agricultural and soil conservation practices and economic reliance on natural forests. Household survey (n = 146) and key informant interviews (n = 24) with farmers was conducted in two communes of the buffer zone of Bach Ma National Park, Central Vietnam. The results indicated that 70% of farmers had reasonable LSK, and farmers with comprehensive LSK (21%) were more familiar with their soils and the relationships between essential soil properties that reflect soil problems. Most farmers used soil colour to allocate crop types because of its association with soil fertility or plant yields. Erosion was identified as a major production constraint, yet less than a fifth of farmers had placed soil erosion control measures into practice. However, low-cost techniques, such as growing native plant cover (e.g.“lồ ô” (Bambusa balcooa)), were suggested by a few farmers to address soil loss. The Katu farmers had greater potential to secure LSK as the next generation are continuing to farm, while the Kinh farmers' LSK is threatened by a lack of engagement in farming by the younger generation. However, Katu farmers have less opportunity to use their LSK due to limitations in farm size and cropping options. These findings have raised different challenges to the succession of farmers' LSK for sustainable agriculture and natural resources conservation in the two communes. Finally, this study highlighted the importance of involving farmers' LSK in the early stages of designing and conducting research through forums or workshops to improve relevance and adoption of practices developed so they align with local people's understanding and practice.

An update and reassessment of vascular plant species richness and distribution in Bach Ma National Park, Central Vietnam


 
 
 Bach Ma National Park (BMNP) is recognized as an essential biodiversity hotspot in Vietnam because of its diverse topography, high species richness and threatened and endemic species. This study updates the richness and distribution of vascular plant species in the BMNP by intergrading data from literature, field surveys, key-informant interviews and participatory observations. Our results showed that the park has a high diversity of vascular plants with 1,874 species belonging to 192 families, 6 phylums including Psilotophyta, Lycopodiophyta, Equisetophyta, Polypodiophyta, Pinophyta, and Magnoliophyta. It also indicates that 199 out of 1,874 vascular species in the BMNP are listed as endangered, precious and rare plant species of Vietnam. In particular, 55 species are part of the IUCN 2020 list, in which 9 are critically endangered species (CR), 15 are endangered species (EN), and 31 are vulnerable species (VU). According to the rankings of the Red List Vietnam (2007), 6 species of CR (accounting for 13.64% compared with the whole country), 36 species of EN (20%), and 52 species of VU (26%) were found in this area. The results provided that vascular plant species are distributed into 2 types based on high altitude (threshold at 900m), but there are no dominant communities. The findings may be essential information for foresters and biologists to recognize and use it as the newest update for their next scientific research in conservation and resource management.
 Vườn Quốc gia (VQG) Bạch Mã được xem là một điểm nóng đa dạng sinh học quan trọng ở Việt Nam vì địa hình đa dạng, độ phong phú loài cao, đặc biệt là các loài đặc hữu và nguy cấp. Trong nghiên cứu này, chúng tôi đã cập nhật sự phong phú và phân bố của các loài thực vật bậc cao tại VQG Bạch Mã bằng cách kết hợp dữ liệu từ tổng quan tài liệu, khảo sát thực địa, phỏng vấn người am hiểu và điều tra có sự tham gia. Kết quả cho thấy VQG có hệ thực vật bậc cao phong phú với 1.874 loài, thuộc 192 họ, 6 ngành bao gồm Psilotophyta, Lycopodiophyta, Equisetophyta, Polypodiophyta, Pinophyta, Magnoliophyta. Kết quả chỉ ra rằng 199 trong số 1.874 loài thực vật bậc cao tại VQG này được xếp vào danh sách các loài nguy cấp của Việt Nam. Đặc biệt, có 55 loài thuộc danh mục của IUCN năm 2020, trong đó có 9 loài Cực kỳ nguy cấp (CR), 15 loài Nguy cấp (EN) và 31 loài Sẽ nguy cấp (VU). Trong khi đó, theo xếp hạng của Sách Đỏ Việt Nam (2007), nghiên cứu cho thấy có 6 loài CR (chiếm 13,64% so với cả nước), 36 loài EN (20%) và 52 loài VU (26%). Phát hiện của chúng tôi cũng chỉ ra rằng đặc điểm phân bố của các loài thực vật bậc cao ở VQG Bạch Mã gồm 2 kiểu rừng dựa trên độ cao (mức 900m), nhưng không có quần xã nào chiếm ưu thế. Các kết quả này được kỳ vọng sẽ là nguồn thông tin cần thiết cho các nhà hoạt động lâm nghiệp và sinh vật học sử dụng nó như một bản cập nhật mới nhất cho các nghiên cứu khoa học tiếp theo trong bảo tồn và quản lý tài nguyên.
 
 

Diet of the Bronze Skink <i>Eutropis macularius</i> (Reptilia: Squamata: Scincidae) from Thua Thien Hue Province, Central Vietnam

In this study, we examined the diet of 149 males and 147 females of Eutropis macularius from Thua Thien Hue Province, central Vietnam using a nonlethal stomach-flushing technique. The prey items of E. macularius composed of Araneae, Insecta (Blattodea, Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, Isoptera, Odonata, and Orthoptera), Mollusca (Philomycidae), and plant materials. The most important prey items were insect larvae, hymenopterans (including ants), grasshoppers, and termites, for both sexes in three populations. Plant materials were also found in the stomach of E. macularius with an index of relative importance of 7.19%, suggesting that E. macularius is an omnivorous species. However, the dominant prey categories of E. macularius were insects, including insect larvae, hymenopterans, grasshoppers, and termites, with many small, sedentary, clumped prey items. Simpson’s heterogeneity index of skinks from three populations from Bach Ma National Park as well as from Aluoi and Huong Tra districts were 10.07, 7.85, 3.94, respectively. Eutropis macularius showed significant positive correlations between mouth width (MW) and prey width (P = 0.001) and between MW and prey volume (P 0.0001). There are significant positive correlations between snout-vent length (SVL) and prey sizes consumed: between SVL and prey length, P 0.0001; SVL and prey width, P 0.0001; and between SVL and prey volume, P 0.0001. These results indicated that SVL and MW are the limiting factors on the size of prey consumed in this skink.

Detection Probability and Site Occupancy of the Granular Spiny Frog (<i>Quasipaa verrucospinosa</i>) in the Tropical Rain Forests of Bach Ma National Park, Central Vietnam

Amphibian species are rarely detected with perfect accuracy, regardless of the method employed. A large-scale assessment for Quasipaa verrucospinosa occupancy was conducted at 35 sites in the primary forest and 42 sites in the secondary forest of Bach Ma National Park, central Vietnam. Based on the detection data for each site, the distribution of Q. verrucospinosa was estimated in different habitat types using occupancy models. From the best model among all performed models, we estimated a site occupancy probability of 0.576 that was higher than the naive occupancy estimate of 0.403 and a 43.1% increase over the site proportion at which Q. verrucospinosa was actually observed. The site covariate of the primary forest was an important determinant of site occupancy, which was not associated with the variable of secondary forest. In a combined AIC model weight: the p(temperature), p(humidity), and p(precipitation) models have 47.3, 67.1, and 90.9% of the total, respectively; providing evidence that aforementioned environmental conditions were important sample covariates in modelling detection probabilities of Q. verrucospinosa. Our results substantiate the importance of incorporating detection and occupancy probabilities into studies of habitat relationships and suggest that the primary forests associated with weather conditions influence the site occupancy of Q. verrucospinosa in Bach Ma National Park, central Vietnam.

Policy Effects for Forest Conservation and Local Livelihood Improvements in Vietnam: A Case Study of Bach Ma National Park

In 2012, the Vietnamese Government enacted “Decision 24” aiming at forest conservation and local development, incorporating the community support program in national park buffer zone to enhance the poor household livelihoods on the condition of reducing forest exploitation. In this program, the village submits an annual plan based on the needs of local people. To evaluate policy impacts, 1) provision of alternative job opportunity, 2) targeting the poor households, and 3) reducing frequency of incursion into national park, were examined. An interview was conducted on 95 households in the buffer zone of Bach Ma National Park. The achievements of the program depended on the village governance. There is a case of inappropriate policy selection that non-incursion HHs were selected and got benefits. It is important that the authority pays attention to not only the local people’s demands but also their management abilities, production conditions, and access to technical support.

Policy effects for forest conservation and local livelihood improvements in Vietnam: a case study on Bach Ma National Park

ABSTRACTIn 2012, the Vietnamese Government enacted Decision 24, which aimed to promote forest conservation and local development, incorporating a community support program in the national park buffer zone to enhance the livelihoods of poor households while reducing forest exploitation. In this program, villages submit an annual plan based on the needs of the local people. This study aims to clarify efficacy and limitation of the program for forest conservation and local livelihood improvements, focusing on local people’s participation in policy decision-making process in national park management. Interview surveys were conducted at the Bach Ma National Park office and 5 relevant commune offices of Nam Dong District in Thua Thien Hue Province, and on 95 households in the buffer zone of Bach Ma National Park. As the results, the villages’ governance ability was a critical factor in the success or failure of conservation policy, because the villages were given high local autonomy in planning and operations. There was a case of inappropriate policy selection in which non-encroachment households were selected and received benefits, and thus the aims of the policy were not achieved. It is important for the authority to consider not only the demands of the local people but also their management abilities to use subsidies effectively. To achieve conservation and good management of the park, bottom-up decision-making is important; however, appropriate and supportive involvement in the decision-making process by the authority is essential, along with the understanding and cooperation of the local people.

Forest Ecosystem Services and Local Communities: Towards a Possible Solution to Reduce Forest Dependence in Bach Ma National Park, Vietnam

Conservation of protected areas is likely to be challenging in the long term if the dependence of local communities on natural resources is not measured appropriately. We investigated forest ecosystem services utilized by communities living around the Bach Ma National Park, Vietnam, and examined their spatial distributions through the integration of data from interviews, participatory mapping, and GIS analysis. The results suggest that provisioning services are crucial to the local livelihoods, and especially for an ethnic minority group. Many respondents confirmed the collection of specific types of forest foods, materials, and water resources mainly used for family consumption. We conducted spatial pattern analysis with land use, administrative units, terrain conditions, and accessibility, and clarified the characteristics of the spatial distribution of ecosystem service collection in relation to these factors, resource abundance, and forest governance. We propose the introduction of community-based tourism as one means to improve the livelihood opportunities of the ethnic minority groups to reduce their forest dependence.