Generation X Research Articles

Medical financial hardship in the Southern United States: the struggle continues across generations pre- and post- the Affordable Care Act

IntroductionMedical financial hardship in the United States is a growing public health concern. This study aims to assess the south vs. non-south disparities in medical financial hardship among US adults of different generations – Boomers (born between 1946 and 1964), Generation X (born between 1965 and 1980), and the Millennials (born between 1981 and 1996) across periods pre- and post- Affordable Care Act (ACA).MethodsThis observational study utilizes data from multiple waves of the National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) split into three periods: pre–ACA (2011–2013), ii) post ACA (2015–2018), and iii) COVID-19 pandemic (2021–2022). Multivariable logistic regressions were fitted, separately for each generation in each period, to compare the extent of medical financial hardship among those from South to rest of the US, and Karlson-Holm-Breen (KHB) decomposition was applied to analyze whether there was a mediating impact of health insurance coverage.ResultsAdults living in the South were more likely to experience medical financial hardship in all three periods. Residing in the South was associated with 1.7 to 2.6% points (pp) higher probability of medical financial hardship among boomers, 1.8 to 4.0 pp among generation Xers, and 1.7 to 2.8 pp among millennials. The relationship was robust after accounting for chronic comorbidities, sociodemographic and socioeconomic attributes and was partially mediated through differences in health insurance coverage.ConclusionsThe problem of medical financial hardship has been deeply rooted in the South across generations, which was partly attributable to the regional differences in health insurance coverage.

Generational persona and entrepreneurial behavior among millennial entrepreneurs: the mediating role of adaptability tendencies

PurposeThe purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between generational persona, adaptability tendencies and entrepreneurial behavior. The paper also aims at testing the mediating role of adaptability tendencies in the relationship between generational persona and entrepreneurial behavior among millennial entrepreneurs in an African setting.Design/methodology/approachThe study adopts a quantitative methodological approach with a cross-sectional, questionnaire survey and correlational design where hypotheses were statistically tested using Structural Equation Modelling based on survey data (n = 382) from millennial entrepreneurs in Kampala Uganda.FindingsDrawing on the sample of 382 millennial entrepreneurs in Kampala, findings show that both generational persona and adaptability tendencies are positively and significantly associated with entrepreneurial behavior. Results further indicate that adaptability tendencies partially mediates the relationship between generational persona and entrepreneurial behavior among millennial entrepreneurs.Research limitations/implicationsThis study focused only on millennial entrepreneurs in Kampala Uganda ignoring other equally important groups of entrepreneurs like the baby boomers, generation Xers, generation Y and others. As such, the findings of this research do not entirely apply to all entrepreneurs in the country and this may have affected the generalizability of the results. Therefore, future studies can be done on the entrepreneurial behavior focusing on all entrepreneurs from all generations. Also, the study used a quantitative approach, future studies should consider a mixed methodology, which may give a more holistic understanding of entrepreneurial behavior.Practical implicationsIn practice, millennial entrepreneurs may use the results of the study to see how they can improve their performance for their businesses to benefit. Specifically, they ought to focus on adaptability, and generational persona to exhibit those entrepreneurial behaviors which will generally lead to the improvement of their businesses.Originality/valueTo the authors’ knowledge, this study provides a shred of initial empirical evidence on the relationship between generational persona, adaptability tendencies and entrepreneurial behavior using evidence from a low developed African country Uganda. Mostly, this study provides initial evidence of the mediating role of adaptability tendencies in the relationship between generational persona and entrepreneurial behavior. This study incorporates the Generational Cohort Theory and the Complex Adaptive Systems Theory into an applied theoretical framework that explains entrepreneurial behavior. More still, this study answers the call for more empirical studies on entrepreneurial behavior.

Digital Trace Data and Demographic Forecasting: How Well Did Google Predict the US COVID‐19 Baby Bust?

AbstractAt the onset of the first wave of COVID‐19 in the United States, the pandemic's effect on future birthrates was unknown. In this paper, we assess whether digital trace data—often touted as a panacea for traditional data scarcity—held the potential to accurately predict fertility change caused by the COVID‐19 pandemic in the United States. Specifically, we produced state‐level, dynamic future predictions of the pandemic's effect on birthrates in the United States using pregnancy‐related Google search data. Importantly, these predictions were made in October 2020 (and revised in February 2021), well before the birth effect of the pandemic could have possibly been known. Our analysis predicted that between November 2020 and February 2021, monthly United States births would drop sharply by approximately 12 percent, then begin to rebound while remaining depressed through August 2021. While these predictions were generally accurate in terms of the magnitude and timing of the trough, there were important misses regarding the speed at which these reductions materialized and rebounded. This ex post evaluation of an ex ante prediction serves as a powerful demonstration of the “promise and pitfalls” of digital trace data in demographic research.

A generation divided: The politics of Generation X

AbstractGeneration X often receives less attention in generational analysis due to its perceived lack of distinctiveness compared to preceding and succeeding generations in the contemporary United States. Politically, there is little justification for distinguishing Generation X as it is commonly defined, yet it harbors significant political divergence between its older and younger cohorts. In terms of partisanship, ideology, and public policy preferences, Generation X is markedly divided, essentially comprising two distinct political generations. Generation X can thus be viewed as the in‐between generation representing the political dividing line between young and old. The dividing point is the birth year of 1973. Due to the considerable differences in the political climate during their formative years, those Gen Xers born before 1973 lean considerably more conservative and Republican than those born in 1973 and afterward.Related ArticlesFisher, Patrick. 2020. “Generational Replacement and the Impending Transformation of the American Electorate.” Politics & Policy 48(1): 38–68. https://doi.org/10.1111/polp.12340.Shaykhutdinov, Renat. 2019. “Socialization, Rationality, and Age: Generational Gaps and the Attitudes toward the Chechen War in Russia.” Politics & Policy 47(5): 931–55. https://doi.org/10.1111/polp.12323.Stockemer, Daniel. 2016. “Is the Turnout Function in Democracies and Nondemocracies Alike or Different?” Politics & Policy 44(5): 889–915. https://doi.org/10.1111/polp.12174.

Birth Patterns in the Aftermath of the 1918 Influenza Pandemic in India: The Case of Madras City.

This paper examines the timing of one-time fluctuations in births subsequent to the 1918 influenza pandemic in Madras (now Chennai), India. After seasonally decomposing key demographic aggregates, we identified abrupt one-time fluctuations in excess births, deaths, and infant deaths. We found a contemporaneous spike in excess deaths and infant deaths and a 40-week lag between the spike in deaths and a subsequent deficit in births. The results suggest that India experienced the same kind of short-term postpandemic "baby bust" that was observed in the United States and other countries. Identifying the mechanisms underlying this widespread phenomenon remains an open question and an important topic for future research.

Discovering generation Z's level of principled moral reasoning and assessing demographic variations

AbstractFramed by social identity and cognitive moral reasoning theories, this paper assessed Gen Zs' level of principled moral reasoning, discovered during their undergraduate college years, and influences revealed by demographic variations using the Moral Reasoning Inventory. We discovered that Gen Zs' principled moral reasoning was lower than research reporting on Millennials, but not as dramatic a decline as scholars reported when investigating Baby Boomers, Generation Xers, and Millennials' Pscores. We found some differences within our sample based on business discipline (academic major), the most powerful influence on Gen Zs' principled moral reasoning, followed by gender, work experience, and academic intelligence (GPA). Years in an academic program were not seen as influencing Gen Zs' principled moral reasoning. Overall, we conclude that Gen Zs may not exhibit a homogenous ethical identity as measured by their level of principled moral reasoning. Implications of these findings are discussed.

The COVID-19 pandemic and fertility decline in Costa Rica: A deep plunge in the first pandemic month, a decelerated decline, and a baby bust due to fleeing migrants

Using microdata from the administrative birth registry maintained by the electoral authority of Costa Rica, this paper aims to address the knowledge gap concerning childbearing during the COVID-19 pandemic in the context of rapid fertility decline since before the pandemic, as compared to the scenario in the highly developed countries. Monthly fertility rates for the period between 2018 and 2022 were estimated. The outcome of interest was a year-on-year change in these rates. The major findings of this study are as follows: (i) A short-lived baby bust in the first full month of the pandemic that is similar to falls observed in other countries (the year-on-year decrease of fertility in January 2021 was as high as 24% for some groups); (ii) a pandemic-associated deceleration in the fertility decline, which could be interpreted as a baby boom if the counterfactual were a continuation of the recent pre-pandemic declining trend; (iii) hints of a baby boom later in the pandemic in communities with low socioeconomic status, and especially, in families with several children, which could come from unwanted pregnancies; and (iv) an anomalous drop in births from foreign-born mothers delivered during the first 9 months of the pandemic, which probably stemmed from pandemic-motivated migration out of the country. The fertility plunge in January 2021 seems to be a response to the hardships caused by pandemic mitigation measures in April 2020, as well as by the uncertainties and fears concerning COVID-19, rather than the response to the physiological harm of the disease itself. The native-born Costa Ricans saw some of the lowest total birth rates in the world during the pandemic: 1.14 and 1.13 births per woman in 2021 and 2022, respectively. These rates would have been even lower if the sharp birth decline observed before the pandemic had continued during the two pandemic years under study.

Assessing the value orientation preferences and the importance given to principled moral reasoning of Generation Zs: A cross‐generational comparison

AbstractWithin the past few years, a new generation has joined the ranks of business managers or is preparing to become business managers: Generation Z (Gen Z), described as individuals born between 1995 and 2010. This paper has two aims: (1) to assess the Gen Z cohort framed by their value orientation preferences (VOP) and the importance given to principled moral reasoning (PMR) using values and cognitive moral reasoning theories and (2) to compare this information about the Gen Z cohort to prior generations. Using the Rokeach Value Survey and the Moral Reasoning Inventory, we uncovered support for our expectations that Gen Zs would have a balanced set of VOP—that is, similar preferences for a personal and a social value orientation and similar preferences for a competence and moral value orientation. Further, Gen Z preferences are unlike prior generations. The importance given to principled moral reasoning to resolve ethical dilemmas is lower than Baby Boomers and Gen Xers but surprisingly higher than Millennials as found in prior studies. Implications of these discoveries and suggestions for future research are presented.

Oncologist Perceptions of Racial Disparity, Racial Anxiety, and Unconscious Bias in Clinical Interactions, Treatment, and Outcomes.

Cancer spares no demographic or socioeconomic group; it is indeed the great equalizer. But its distribution is not equal; when structural discrimination concentrates poverty and race, zip code surpasses genetic code in predicting outcomes. Compared with White patients in the United States, Black patients are less likely to receive appropriate treatment and referral to clinical trials, genetic testing, or palliative care/hospice. In 2021, we administered a survey to 369 oncologists measuring differences in perceptions surrounding racial disparity, racial anxiety, and unconscious bias and adverse influence on clinical interactions, treatment, and outcomes for non-White patients. We analyzed responses by generational age group, sex/gender, race/ethnicity, US region, and selection of "decline to respond." The most significant differences occurred by age group followed by race/ethnicity. Racial disparity was perceived as moderate to very high by 84% of millennial, 69% of Generation X, and 57% of baby boomer oncologists, who were also 86% more likely than millennials and 63% more likely than Generation Xers to perceive low/nonexistent levels of racial anxiety/unconscious bias. Most oncologists rarely or never perceived racial anxiety/unconscious bias as adversely influencing clinical treatment or survival outcomes in non-White patients, and White oncologists were 85% more likely than non-White oncologists to perceive rare/nonexistent influence on referral of non-White patients to palliative care/hospice. The discrepancy between 62% of oncologists perceiving moderate to very high levels of racial anxiety/unconscious bias and 37% associating them with adverse influence on non-White patients shows a disconnect, especially among older oncologists (baby boomers), who were also least likely to select the decline option. Together, these factors hinder effective patient-provider communication and result in differential care and outcomes. Oncologists should uncover their own perceptions surrounding racial disparity, racial anxiety, and unconscious bias and modify their behaviors accordingly. It is this simple-and this complicated. Cancer does not discriminate, and neither should cancer care.

The middle-aged and older Chinese adults’ health using actigraphy in Taiwan (MOCHA-T): protocol for a multidimensional dataset of health and lifestyle

Background and objectivesOlder adults keep transforming with Baby Boomers and Gen Xers being the leading older population. Their lifestyle, however, is not well understood. The middle-aged and older Chinese adults’ health using actigraphy in Taiwan (MOCHA-T) collected both objective and subjective data to depict the health and lifestyle of this population. The objectives, design, and measures of the MOCHA-T study are introduced, and the caveats and future directions related to the use of the data are presented.MethodsPeople aged 50 and over were recruited from the community, with a subset of women aged 45–49 invited to supplement data on menopause and aging. Four instruments (i.e., self-reported questionnaires, diary, wrist actigraphy recorder, and GPS) were used to collect measures of sociodemographic, health, psychosocial, behavioral, temporal, and spatial data.ResultsA total of 242 participants who returned the informed consent and questionnaires were recruited in the MOCHA-T study. Among them, 94.6%, 95.0%, and 25.2% also completed the diary, actigraphy, and GPS data, respectively. There was almost no difference in sociodemographic characteristics between those with and without a completed diary, actigraphy, and GPS data, except for age group and educational level for those who returned completed actigraphy data.ConclusionThe MOCHA-T study is a multidimensional dataset that allows researchers to describe the health, behaviors, and lifestyle patterns, and their interactions with the environment of the newer generation of middle-aged and older adults in Taiwan. It can be compared with other countries with actigraphy and GPS-based lifestyle data of middle-aged and older adults in the future.

Fertility in a Pandemic: Evidence from California.

The COVID-19 pandemic was accompanied by social and economic changes previously associated with fertility delay and reduction, sparking widespread discussion of a "baby bust" in the U.S. We examine fertility trends using restricted vital statistics data from California, a diverse population of 40 million contributing 12% of U.S. births. Using time series models that account for longer-run fertility trends, we observe modest, short-term reductions in births from mid 2020 through early 2021. Birth counts in subsequent months matched or even eased the pace of fertility decline since the 2008 recession and are unlikely a function of the pandemic alone. Responses to the pandemic were heterogeneous. Fertility declined markedly among the foreign-born population, largely driven by changes in net migration. Among the U.S.-born population, the short-term pandemic-attributable reductions were largest among older, highly educated people, suggesting mechanisms of fertility reduction disparately accessible to those with the most resources. We find no evidence of a strong population fertility response to the pandemic's accompanying employment shock, providing additional evidence of a growing divide between macroeconomic conditions and fertility patterns in the U.S.

Baby Boom or Baby Bust After the COVID-19 Onset in the United States? Evidence from an ARIMA Time-Series Analysis

Baby Boom or Baby Bust After the COVID-19 Onset in the United States? Evidence from an ARIMA Time-Series Analysis

Life insurance consumption across generations: The roles of financial knowledge, planning horizon, and self‐control

AbstractLife insurance enhances households' capacity to absorb financial shocks and protects against personal risks that no one likes to contemplate. This is even more important in times of economic hardship such as now, when many Europe countries and particularly Spain are going through difficult times due to rising inflation, the war in Ukraine, and the ongoing COVID‐19 pandemic. Although previous studies have analysed the driving forces of life insurance demand, the influence of the individual's financial planning horizon, financial knowledge, and financial self‐control have been underexplored. This study analyses the influence of personal financial attributes on life insurance demand and, in so doing, explores whether the effects of such attitudes differ across different generational cohorts (i.e., the silent generation, baby boomers, Gen Xers, and millennials). The data, taken from the Survey of Financial Competences, comprises 7245 Spanish individuals. Evidence from multivariate analyses reflects the relevance of standard sociodemographic characteristics in explaining individuals' decisions to become life insurance holders. In contrast, evidence does not support a statistically significant relationship in the case of behavioural variables such as financial self‐control and the financial planning horizon.

The US COVID-19 baby bust and rebound

The US COVID-19 baby bust and rebound

How to Make Decisions of Gen Z Travelers? Exploring The Influence of Perceived Risk, Online Review, and Price on Travel in Bali

This study aims to examine how to make decisions of Gen Z influence of the current COVID-19 public health crisis on consumer risk perceptions, and what is more significant is how risk perceptions have the potential to influence tourist post-crisis recovery travel behavior. The research sample had 250 respondents. Baby Boomers, Gen Xers, and Millennials value input from their Gen Z kids. Gen Z is an individual from the most recent generation born between 1995 and early 2012. Multiple linear regression analysis was employed in this quantitative study. The result was: (1) Perceived Risk has no effect on Gen Z Travel Decision which a coefficient value is 0.061 (2) e-WOM Argument Quality (Online Review) has significantly influenced Gen Z Travel Decision which a coefficient value of 0.394 (3) Price has no effect on Gen Z Travel decision which the coefficient value is 0.375. The goal of the growth strategy is to increase sales, assets, earnings, or a combination of the three. This can be done through reducing costs, creating new items, improving the quality of existing products or services, or gaining access to a larger market. That approach may be used in other places that could become popular tourist destinations.

Gen Xers: Perceived barriers and motivators to fashion renting from the Indian cultural context

AbstractRecently, the thought processes of consumers are evolving universally, making them reflective of the detrimental ecological footprints owing to excessive fashion consumption at a personal level. Consequently, they are increasingly thinking about accessing alternative, sustainable modes of consuming fashion. Furthermore, this transition is being witnessed across the generations and is not confined to any one generation. The current study pertains to the recent shift of “Generation X" towards fashion rentals. However, Gen X is considered less experimental, more conservative, and therefore less lucrative. To this end, the current study explores the barriers to Gen X's adoption of fashion rental and suggests motivations to promote it. It employs an interpretive qualitative research paradigm, obtains data from 32 Gen X fashion consumers via semi‐structured interviews, analyses the data using thematic analysis, and uses the theory of psychological ownership and the Hofstede cultural dimensions as an underpinning framework. Results indicate the emergence of six themes representing barriers, including loss of efficacy and effectance, loss of self‐identity and extended self, temporariness, environmental unsustainability, personal hygiene behaviour, and lifestyle. Similarly, motivations included three themes: long‐term subscriptions; transparency and assurances; and personalisation and storytelling. This implies that fashion rental firms need to embrace transparency and empower consumers through co‐creation, long‐term rental subscriptions, and the possibilities of possession. Further, the paper contributes to the identification of new dimensions, including a lack of nostalgia, risk avoidance, personal hygiene, an absence of personalisation, a dearth of education, emotional detachment, and voluntary simplicity in lifestyle. It also suggests future research.

Leading from within: Understanding the lived experience of Gen X school heads in a digitalized world

The issue that schools and school systems are dealing with nowadays is how to find, nurture, and maintain talented and committed leadership. For systemic change to occur, the leaders of tomorrow must be identified and developed. There is a need to change structures and redefine boundaries in order to fully utilize the leadership potential in schools (Beach, 2020). However, according to Werde (2023) Gen Xers have experienced difficulties in their quest for leadership roles due to a few major issues. First off, with only 20% of the workforce made up of members of their generation, they are the least represented. They are frequently referred to as "the forgotten middle child" in the workplace because of their smaller proportion and lack of majority, and the second obstacle to their ascent to top positions in organizations is their commitment to work-life balance.
 This study aimed at determining and understanding the leading from within: the lived experience of gen x school heads in a digitalized world. Specifically, this study determined the lived experiences of Gen X school heads in private schools in a digitalized world and to understand how Gen X being school heads in private schools face the demands and challenges in a digitalized world. 
 The researcher employed the phenomenological research design to understand and describe the lived experience of Gen X school heads in a digitalized world. Phenomenological research focuses on describing what all the participants have in common as they face the demands and challenges brought by the digitalized world. The basic purpose is to reduce individual experiences with a phenomenon to a description of the over-all essence.
 The salient findings of the study are: as to the lived experiences of Gen X school in a digitalized world: Three themes emerged with regards to their experiences as Gen X school heads in a digitalized world. It was revealed in their experiences that open communication and shared responsibility are evident in their school through their leadership. Being open with suggestions and willing to accept criticisms are some of the helpful and vital characteristics that they have to ensure communication among the teachers. It was noted that they also emphasize the significance of collaboration through open discussion in resolving issues or problems and understanding others’ sentiments. Moreover, some of the challenges that most of the participants’ encounter includes negative attitudes of teachers and students; digital divide since not all have the same level of technological skills, generation gaps considering the diversity of learners and the gap between them and the teachers and the slow internet connection and availability of teaching resources that affect the delivery of quality education. In addition, they also experience ways on how to keep up with the technological advancement, with this they have peer tutoring, programs that develop their own and the teachers’ digital skills, and being up-to-date with the latest technological advancements.

Pandemic Roller‐Coaster? Birth Trends in Higher‐Income Countries During the COVID‐19 Pandemic

AbstractWe use monthly birth data collected by the Human Fertility Database to analyze the impact of the COVID‐19 pandemic on birth trends until September 2022 in 38 higher‐income countries. We also present estimates of the monthly total fertility rate adjusted for seasonality. Our analysis reveals that the pandemic led to distinct swings in births and fertility rates. The initial pandemic shock was associated with a fall in births in most countries, with the sharpest drop in January 2021. Next, birth rates showed a short‐term recovery in March 2021, following the conceptions after the end of the first wave of the pandemic. Most countries reported a stable or slightly increasing number of births in the subsequent months, especially in autumn 2021. Yet another, quite unexpected, downturn in births started in January 2022, linked with the conceptions in spring 2021 when the pandemic measures were mostly eased out and vaccination was gaining momentum. Taken together and contrary to some initial expectations, the coronavirus pandemic did not bring a lasting “baby bust” in most of the analyzed countries. Especially the Nordic countries, the Netherlands, Germany, and the United States experienced an improvement in their birth dynamics in 2021 compared with the prepandemic period.

Did the 1918 influenza pandemic cause a 1920 baby boom? Demographic evidence from neutral Europe

In 1919–20, the European countries that were neutral in the First World War saw a small baby bust followed by a small baby boom. The sparse literature on this topic attributes the 1919 bust to individuals postponing conceptions during the peak of the 1918–20 influenza pandemic and the 1920 boom to recuperation of those conceptions. Using data from six large neutral countries of Europe, we present novel evidence contradicting that narrative. In fact, the subnational populations and maternal birth cohorts whose fertility was initially hit hardest by the pandemic were still experiencing below-average fertility in 1920. Demographic evidence, economic evidence, and a review of post-pandemic fertility trends outside Europe suggest that the 1920 baby boom in neutral Europe was caused by the end of the First World War, not by the end of the pandemic.

Factors Influencing Behavioral Propensity To Use Mobile Shopping Apps In Generation X: The Tam Approach

The purpose of this study was to study the factors that influence the intention of Generation X in using online shopping applications, with the TAM (Technology Acceptance Model) approach. This research is a survey research using questionnaires as a tool to collect data. Pre-testing is carried out at the beginning of the study, before distributing questionnaires to ensure that the instruments used are valid and understandable. The 50 respondents were Generation Xers aged 43 to 58, who used online shopping applications. The instrument is a questionnaire consisting of two parts, namely the independent variable and the dependent variable. The data were analyzed with SEM, and validity and reliability tests were conducted. What influences Generation X's intention to shop on online shopping apps is 1. perception of usefulness, 2. perception of ease of use,3. perception of value and 4. perception of security. In addition, social factors such as subjective norms and reference groups. This research can help e-commerce companies improve services to Generation X consumers, by making it easier for them to use online shopping applications.