Bakongo Research Articles

Of writing and freedom in Sony Labou Tansi’s novel Life and a Half

This essay offers a critical re-reading of Sony Labou Tansi’s début novel Life and a Half that was both formally innovative and conceptually challenging. As a point of departure, I consider Tansi’s statements about his vocation as a writer and the interpretive questions they raise. One such question is why the novel’s critical reception has tended to focus on its representation of dictatorship, while not engaging as productively with its existential dimensions. To get at these issues, this essay explores the integral relationship between writing and freedom. I structure the argument around an interpretation of three aliases for the writer, Martial, Chaïdana, and Layisho, who are fictional projections of the author in the novel. My critical approach to the text is informed by the published archive of Tansi’s extra-literary writing, my own fieldwork in Congo-Brazzaville, and interdisciplinary scholarship on the Kongo people and their culture from art history to political anthropology. My re-reading of this classic novel argues that the archive and Kongo culture are valuable resources for understanding the writer’s creative repertoire, which allows us to expand our interpretive framework for explicating aesthetic choices and their meanings in the text. Freedom as a concept broadens our critical parameters and brings a range of interrelated experiences into focus in the same interpretive frame, helping us to elucidate distinctions between them. By showing how Sony Labou Tansi elevates writing as a weapon of resistance with a spiritual dimension drawing on Kongo ritual and culture, we are better able to appreciate the extent of his capacious longing for freedom at home.

Converging on Cannibals: Terrors of Slaving in Atlantic Africa, 1509–1670

Converging on Cannibals: Terrors of Slaving in Atlantic Africa, 1509–1670

Ethnobotanical characterization of medicinal plants used in Kisantu and Mbanza-Ngungu territories, Kongo-Central Province in DR Congo

BackgroundThe phytotherapeutic knowledge of the Kongo people in the territories of Kisantu and Mbanza-Ngungu in Kongo-Central Province (DR Congo) is rapidly eroding. To document the remaining knowledge, we conducted an ethnobotanical survey on the most important medicinal plant species and diseases treated with them, as well as plants with therapeutic potential. We also checked for the cultural similarity in medicinal plant knowledge between the two territories and how knowledge about Kongo medicinal plants differs between different social groups.MethodsFrom June 2017 until February 2018 and from February 2019 until April 2019, we conducted a survey with 188 phytotherapists, selected using the snowball method and surveyed using semi-structured interviews. Voucher specimens were taken for identification. Ethnobotanical data were analyzed using medicinal use value (UVs), informant agreement ratio (IARs), informant consensus factor (ICF), and species therapeutic potential (STP). Rahman’s similarity index was used for ethno-cultural comparison of medicinal plant knowledge between the two communities. Medicinal knowledge between different social groups was analyzed using non-parametric tests and Poisson regression.ResultsA total of 231 plants (i.e., 227 botanical species, representing 192 genera and 79 families) were reportedly used to treat 103 diseases. Most abundant taxa were reported for the Fabaceae family (including 11.9% of species and 10.9% of genera). Most reported species (45.0%) were from anthropized areas. Leaves (39.4%), herbs (37.1%), decoction (41.7%), and oral ingestion (72%) were the most frequently cited plant part, botanical form, preparation, and administration method, respectively. Four of all inventoried species showed high UVS (> 0.05), whereas eight had an IAR of one. According to ICF, 31 diseases were mentioned. Highest ICF (≥ 0.4) was observed for hemorrhoids (0.44), amoebiasis (0.43), and itchy rash (0.42). Fifty-four plant species were identified as likely possessing an interesting therapeutic potential. Low ethno-cultural similarity in medicinal knowledge (RSI = 16.6%) was found between the two territories. Analysis of the Kongo medicinal plant knowledge showed that the mean number of reported species and diseases vary considerably depending on gender, type, and residence of therapists (P < 0.05).ConclusionResults prove that the Kongo phytopharmacopeia makes use of interesting medicinal plant species that could be further studied for conservation and pharmacological applications.

Poder, disputa e múltiplas narrativas históricas

Este artigo tem como objetivo apresentar múltiplas narrativas kongo sobre o lugar chamado de Kulumbimbi, na cidade de Mbanza Kongo em Angola. A cidade foi a capital do Reino do Kongo, e mantém entre as populações bakongo uma grande significância, especialmente de cunho religioso e identitário. Estas narrativas tradicionais apresentam o lugar como paisagem ideativa, um elo do passado com o presente, com marcas e vivências que remetem a uma época de prosperidade, paz e soberania. O Kulumbimbi é o lugar dos antepassados, um lugar sagrado e central para a identidade do povo kongo, contrastando, assim, das narrativas colonial portuguesa e da UNESCO, que interpretam o lugar como símbolo do presença lusitana na África.

Ethnicity and Language in the Run-Up to Congolese Independence in the 1950s: Ba(Ki)Kongo and Ba(Li)Ngala

Abako (Alliance des Bakongo), one of the main political parties rallying for Congolese independence in the late 1950s, started off as a linguistic-cultural movement to promote the use of the Kikongo language and Kongo identity in Leopoldville against a dominance of the Lingala language and “Bangala.” In reaction to this, members of the “Bangala” elite also organised themselves, after which a series of ideological confrontations between “Bakongo” and “Bangala” intellectuals ensued. Tracing back Abako's transformation from cultural movement to political party, we describe how, in pre-independence Kinshasa, politics was ethnicised and ethnicity was politicised along this Bakongo–Bangala and Kikongo–Lingala divide. We analyse how the initial entente between Abako elites and colonial missionaries in favour of Kikongo morphed into a hostile, anti-colonial discourse as the struggle for independence reached its height. This Congolese case shows how, as the decades of colonial decay progressed, the nexus between ethnolanguage and colonisation inevitably also became one between ethnolanguage and anti-colonisation.

Political Changes in the DRC and the Contextualization of Bakongo People’s Identity: Based on Ne Muanda Nsemi, BDK and BDM

Political Changes in the DRC and the Contextualization of Bakongo People’s Identity: Based on Ne Muanda Nsemi, BDK and BDM

Religious Pluralism and the Limits of Ecumenism in Mbanza Kongo, Angola

Ecumenism has been a constant effort of many Christian agents in war-torn Angola ever since the 1960s, and certainly in the reconciliation initiatives that have taken place since the end of the war in 2002. Today, ecumenism is a structuring concept in the new law of religious freedom, which stipulates that, in order for religions to be legal, they must belong to an ‘Ecumenical Platform’. Yet, in the northern parts of Angola, Bakongo people remember too well how strongly allied Christianity has been with oppressive forms of power since the arrival of Diogo Cão five centuries ago, and especially since the martyrdom of Kimpa Vita in 1706. The local cosmology and an acute sense of historical resentment have created a strong resistance to any form of Christian ecumenism, especially among the thousands of exiled Bakongo who are returning to the country from the neighbouring Democratic Republic of Congo, where they explored their Kongo, rather than their Portuguese, roots. Thanks to these returnees, Kongo religious institutions, some officially banned by Angolan laws, are being visibly revitalised and spread among local people to whom Christianity and ecumenism have little to offer beyond memories of suffering and oppression. How far grassroots ecumenism may be possible among these Kongo religious institutions remains uncertain.

Plants from disturbed savannah vegetation and their usage by Bakongo tribes in Uíge, Northern Angola.

BackgroundThis study represents the first in-depth ethnobotanical study in the province of Uíge in northern Angola and documents the traditional knowledge of the Bakongo people living in the area. Due to deforestation and frequent fires, degraded savannahs dominate the landscape in the study region. Here we provide a list of useful plants from these savannahs including quantitative data about cultural importance of the respective species, aiming on the one hand to conserve the local knowledge and on the other hand to create a reliable basis for research projects in the region.MethodsField work was conducted in April and May 2014 in 5 municipalities of Uíge province. The study is based on 32 semi-structured and free-listing interviews, group discussions of varying scope and 14 field trips, involving a total of 82 informants. Throughout the course of the study herbarium specimens of the useful species were collected for later identification. Cultural importance index was applied to analyse the data sets recorded and to determine the best-known useful species in the region. All data sets were compared to the literature available for the region.ResultsThe study documents a total of 498 citations for the use of 122 plants from 48 families, 34.0 % of which were unknown according to the literature used for comparison. The high amount (71 %) of medical use-reports indicates that plants still play a crucial role in rural health care. We identified 14 plant species of special interest for pharmacological analysis. Species of highest cultural importance are Annona senegalensis Pers. and Sarcocephalus latifolius (Sm.) E.A., both of which are frequently found in disturbed savannahs.ConclusionsThe study points out the importance of savannahs even if degraded in terms of useful plants and provides a valuable addition to current knowledge of plant use in Northern Angola. This is not only essential for further studies, i.e. regarding pharmaceutical agents, but also for the design of a planned botanical garden of the University Kimpa Vita in Uíge, which aims at communicating the findings to the local people.

The epidemiology of rheumatoid arthritis in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo--a population-based study

To determine the prevalence of RA and its distribution among linguistic groups in the urban area of Kinshasa. Investigators questioned all individuals living in randomly chosen streets in five randomly chosen health areas in Kinshasa. Age, sex, linguistic group and rheumatic complaints were noted. RA diagnosis by 1987 ACR classification criteria was checked in all suspect cases. Disease activity (DAS-28), functionality (HAQ), X-ray damage, ACPA and RF positivity were assessed in patients confirmed with RA. A total of 5000 individuals were questioned, with 2700 females and 2300 males [average age 25.7 (1.8) years]. Linguistic group definitions were obtained in 4587 subjects: 44.3% had Kongo roots, 16.9% Ngala, 16.7% Luba, 11% Swahili, 3.6% Tetela and 7.6% miscellaneous. Thirty persons (age ± 53 years) fulfilled the ACR criteria with a female/male sex ratio of 5. Mean age at disease onset was 47.7 years. Kongo people had the highest RA prevalence (1%). Mean DAS-28 was 6.5, mean HAQ was 1.3. One-third of patients were RF and ACPA positive and had classical X-ray findings. The prevalence of RA in Kinshasa is 0.6 and 0.9% in people aged >18 years. Disease activity was high, but RF and ACPA positivity was not frequent. The Kongo seems to be the most affected linguistic group.

PRENDAS-NGANGAS-ENQUISOS: Turbulence and the Influence of the Dead in Cuban-Kongo Material Culture

Cuban-Kongo praise of the dead in Havana turns insistently around complex agglomerations of materials called "prendas,""ngangas," and "enquisos." This article addresses the ontological status of "prendas-ngangas-enquisos," which practitioners of Cuban-Kongo affliction practices care for as entities that determine the very possibility of their healing and harming craft. Cuban-Kongo societies of affliction, in Havana collectively referred to as "Palo," stake their claim to influence others in and through these entities. In this essay I seek to position the influence generated in prendas-ngangas-enquisos as a problem for Euro-American materialism, to be addressed not through symbolic or representational solutions but, rather, by refocusing the problem itself via alternate distributions of its epistemological, historical, and ethnographic elements. Contextualized within ethnographic description, I first propose that prendas-ngangas-enquisos do not conform to dialectical logic, and should thus be positioned conceptually as something other than "objects" or "fetishes." From there, I consider Creole turns on the term prenda and explore scholarly accounts of 19th-century Cuban slavery and manumission, which I place alongside what is known about pawn slavery among BaKongo people prior to and during the Atlantic slave trade. Having established a basic series of conceptual and historiographic coordinates, I then suggest ethnographically how prendas-ngangas-enquisos come to command others, thereby guaranteeing Cuban-Kongo healing and harming sovereignty in Cuba today.

Chastized by Scorpions: Christianity and Culture in Colonial South Carolina, 1669–1740

Early in 1740, actor-turned-revivalist George Whitefield journeyed to Savannah after a preaching tour that had taken him to Philadelphia and New York before heading south to Charleston, where he arrived in January that year. At the time, Charleston was experiencing communal angst. A few months before, in September 1739, an uprising occurred in this colony where African slaves were a majority—perhaps even two-thirds of the population. Around two dozen whites lost their lives, and several plantations were burned. Popular belief held that a Catholic priest inspired the revolt since apparently many involved in the uprising were Catholic Kongo people who hoped to escape to St. Augustine where Spanish Catholic authorities had promised them freedom. The assault came on a Sunday early in September. Later that month new colonial legislation that required white men to be armed at all times—even while attending Sunday worship—would become law. Whites assumed that the timing was intended to assure that the revolt occurred before that provision took effect, since most did not ordinarily carry firearms to church on Sunday.

Crianças feiticeiras: reconfigurando família, igrejas e estado no pós-guerra angolano

Acusações de feitiçaria a crianças e adolescentes têm emergido em diversas partes da África, com destaque para a República Democrática do Congo. Em Angola este fenômeno é observado principalmente entre o grupo étnico Bakongo. Procura-se aqui apontar alguns fatores envolvidos na emergência deste fenômeno em Angola, considerando esta especificidade étnica. Outro objetivo é o de analisar como diferentes agentes em instituições do Estado angolano, igrejas e ONGs vêm construindo percepções, discursos e formas de intervenção sobre esta questão, considerando diferentes noções de alteridade, cultura, família, igreja e comunidade.

Group Identity, Individual Creativity, and Symbolic Generation in a BaKongo Diaspora

This article applies theories of group dynamics and individual agency to past material expressions of core symbols within particular African American religious beliefs. The past creation and use of such artifacts is analyzed using theories concerning modes of symbolic expression, the interplay of dominant and nondominant religions, formation and maintenance of social group identities, and the role of individual creativity and innovation within those processes. This analysis demonstrates the ways in which facets of the core symbolic expressions of the BaKongo people of West Central Africa evolved over time and across the trans-Atlantic region.

Art and Healing of the Bakongo Commented by Themselves: Minkisi from the Laman Collection

Art and Healing of the Bakongo Commented by Themselves: Minkisi from the Laman Collection

Art and healing of the Bakongo commented by themselves: minkisi from the Laman collection

Art and healing of the Bakongo commented by themselves: minkisi from the Laman collection

Bakongo Incantations and Prayers.

Bakongo Incantations and Prayers.

3. Nzambi Mpungu, the God of the Bakongo

3. Nzambi Mpungu, the God of the Bakongo

Among the Primitive Bakongo

Among the Primitive Bakongo

Among the Primitive Bakongo

Among the Primitive Bakongo